
Class ___ XE.:^5 5_. 

Book 1 - G<:kl 

Copyright N^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



NOTES 



ON 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS 



AND 



PRELIMIMEY ENGINEERING 



BY 



W. C. GOTSHALL, 



Member American Society of Civil Engineers, Member American Institute of Electrical 
Engineers, President and Chief Engineer New York and Port Chester R. R. Co. 



SECOND EDITION, Corrected. 



NEW YORK: 

McGRAW PUBLISHING COMPANY, 

114 Liberty Street. 

1904. 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

NOV 11 1904 

Sopyrlfirnt Entry 

CLASS Q^ XXc. Noi 

COPY B. 







Copyrighted, 1903 and 1904, 

BY THE 

McGRAW PUBLISHING COMPANY, 
New York. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Chapter I. Introductory 1 

II. Preliminary Office Determinations 6 

III. Preliminary Field Survey 13 

IV. Detailed Office Investigation of Track Loca- 

tion 25 

V. Preliminary Determination of Schedules and 

Equipment 38 

VI. Estimate of Earnings 56 

VII. Estimate of Probable Operating Expenses. . 68 

Vin. The Final Survey 78 

IX. Track Construction 85 

X. Overhead or Third-Rail Construction 101 

XI. The Power Station 120 

XII. Storage Batteries 136 

XIII. Rolling Stock and Motors 148 

XIV. Securing Rights of "Way 176 

XV. Preparation of the Specifications 186 

XVI. The Construction Period 190 

XVII. The Organization of the Operating Depart- 
ment 193 

XVIII. Economic Considerations 201 

Appendix, I. Specifications for Moderate-Sized Interurban 

Railway 211 

II. Bibliography 244 

[V] 



PREFACE. 

This book is based upon a series of lectures whicb I deliv- 
ered at Lehigh University, last spring, the subject of which 
dealt with the economics of the preliminary and other deter- 
minations and of the construction and operating of high-speed 
and heavy traction interurban electric railroads. After the 
lectures had been delivered, some of the members of the 
faculty of Lehigh University and others who had heard the 
lectures, together with other men whose financial and other 
interests are essentially railroads, including practicing en- 
gineers, to whom the notes had been loaned, expressed the 
desire to have them published, for the reason, as they stated, 
that the treatment was novel and practical, and that no 
discussion of the subject, as presented in the lectures, existed 
in book form. I have, therefore, filled out the lecture notes, 
in some places adding matter thereto, and have rearranged 
the subjects so as to follow the order in which they would 
be taken up in the investigation and construction of an elec- 
tric railway undertaking of the kind herein considered. 

With the exception of a few large general maps, prepared 

for special cases, and some sets of railroad maps showing 

alignments and profiles, and a few sets of colored Progress 

Sheets, all of the full size original drawings and diagrams 

which I used while delivering the lectures have been reduced 

[iii] 



iv PREFACE. 

and reproduced for this volume and appear at their proper 
places in the folloAving pages. 

Some time prior to the delivery of these lectures a series of 
hearings was held by the Railroad Commissioners of ^ew 
York State to consider the application of the I^ew York and 
Port Chester Railroad Company for a charter, and during this 
hearing the practicability from both an engineering and com- 
mercial standpoint of interurban high-speed electric railways 
was fully demonstrated. Although the l!s^ew York and Port 
Chester Railroad is not yet in operation, I used considerable 
of the engineering and other data placed in evidence at this 
hearing, as well as much other data worked up in developing 
and demonstrating the commercial and engineering details of 
of the 'New York and Port Chester Railroad in the Lehigh 
University lectures, and have also employed some of the same 
data in this book. 

^'either the lectures, or this book, were or are given as a 
treatise or exhaustive treatment of the subject as a whole, or 
of the details as indicated in the chapter headings. The 
lectures were intended to '' point the way," and embody some 
of the results of twelve years of practice and application. 
This book is presented with the same object in view. 

I desire to express my thanks to Mr. C. O. Mailloux, my 
associate, and to Mr. H. W. Blake, Editor of the Street Rail- 
way Journal, for the help they have given me in completing 
this book. 

W. C. GOTSHALL. 

New York, August, 1903. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS AND 
PRELIMINARY ENGINEERING. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

The purpose of this book is not to discuss in detail the in- 
tricate electrical and other engineering problems connected 
with the location and construction of interurban electric rail- 
ways. While a knowledge of such details is of great import- 
ance to the constructing engineer, indeed is essential to suc- 
cess, their consideration exceeds the proposed scope of this 
volume, and the reader is referred to the special, detail 
works on civil, electrical, mechanical, and steam engineer- 
ing. It is the intention here to consider rather the sub- 
ject broadly and as a whole, to outline the work of 
the electric railway engineer during the inaugurative and 
constructive period of a proposed road, and to give in 
a general way some bases upon w^hich the costs of con- 
struction, probable present and future traffic, and ul- 
timate economic results of the proposed railway can be 
gauged. In this discussion I will consider some of the 
technical details of interurban electric railroading which 
are not now to be found in the text-books, and will also, for 
the better understanding of the subject, take up certain 
concrete examples of the different subjects treated. 

Success in the inauguration, construction, and operation 
of railways of the character discussed in these pages re- 
quires, on the part of the railway engineer, a combination 
of engineering and commercial skill. He must not only 
be conversant with those purely technical matters required 
of the civil and electrical engineer, but he must also be 

[1] 



2 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

tlioroughly awake to and skilled in those commercial mat- 
ters relating to finance, conditions affecting and governing 
the securing of business, retention of business, cost of 
handling a given volume of business, and the causes which 
influence and determine traffic. 

The relations of the railway engineer to his clients are 
essentially fiduciary. His responsibilities are precisely 
those of trust company officers or trustees having in hand 
the investment of the funds of others. The engineer is 
expected to advise his clients whether the proposed enter- 
prise will be a safe investment, and he is also expected to 
give the reasons for his conclusions. Upon his opinion and 
conclusions large sums will probably be staked, and for this 
reason he has no right to recommend any investment which 
will not pay either at once or in the near future. 

The era of rapid transit, or high-speed electric roads, 
operated at such speed and headway of train units that peo- 
ple can live well beyond the congested commercial centers 
and daily pass between their homes and the commercial 
centers or places of their occupation or business without 
suffering the prohibitive loss of time and inconvenience en- 
tailed by the use of surface roads operating upon and along 
public streets and highways, is now here. Populations in 
our large cities have been increasing for years, but trans- 
portation facilities have, by no means, kept pace with the 
development. In consequence, the natural tendency to 
spread out over larger areas has been checked, as evidenced 
by the increase in the number and size of apartment and 
tenement-houses in our large centers of population during 
the past five or six years. Too much had been expected as 
a transportation agent of electric street railways. The ac- 
tual demonstration of their speed limitations, as shown by 
their schedules, and rendered imperative by the paramount 
consideration of public safety, has developed: 

First. The interurban railway operating upon public 
highways. 



INTRODUCTORY. 3 

Second. The high-speed interiirban railroads operating 
upon their own rights of ways, and, therefore, free to make 
the fastest practicable schedules. 

Both of these have their province and both have come to 
stay. The latter, however, will undoubtedly have the great- 
est future and must receive that concentrated attention 
always accorded to an indispensable economic necessity, for 
such it certainly is. 

The sun of the high-speed railroad, reaching out into the 
country, is now risen, but, as yet, is far from its zenith. The 
street surface or tramway systems will continue to do the 
short-haul business in the cities and other population centers 
for many years to come, while the suburban extensions of 
these lines will supply a service for those so close to the large 
cities that the element of time taken in the average trip does 
not figure as a very large factor. Both classes of road will soon 
be commonly recognized as feeders to the high-speed trunk 
lines and systems. Each will be a necessary adjunct of 
the other. The sun of the street surface railway is well 
beyond its zenith and while some development may be ex- 
pected in the suburban or rural railway on public highways, 
its future is more or less limited. In the matter of those 
transportation prerequisites, viz., speed and comfort, neither 
class of road can offer much more than it is now giving on 
account of conditions not within its control. 

At the present time, the determination of railway projects 
is essentially along the lines of heavy traction and interurban 
development. The latest projects, both existing and pro- 
posed, of interurban electric railway installations involve 
not only features entering into their preliminary determina- 
tions, but features of construction and operation differing 
from those which have heretofore been controlling factors in 
electric railways. 

It is my purpose in this discussion to devote considerable 
time to the investigation of preliminary conditions, as well 
as to the determination of those characteristics of construe- 



4 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

tion and operation which should be followed in the highest 
class of interurban electric railway projects. 

In approaching this subject, it will be taken up in the 
following order: 

I. Preliminary Determinations. (Chap. II-III.) 

(a) First or preliminary determinations of the probable 
revenue and the general investigation of the physical char- 
acteristics of the territory proposed to be served. 

(b) Investigation of the commercial and other character- 
istics of the territory proposed to be served. 

(c) Preliminary surveys and fixing of preliminary lines 
and data on which to base relative and ultimate deter- 
minations. 

(d) Prerequisites in connection with preliminary field 
work. 

II. Location of Line and Engineering. (Chaps. lY-VII.) 

(a) Controlling considerations, such as connecting centers 
of population, alignment and gradients, termini and stations, 
and prerequisites for high speeds and safety of the public, 
etc. 

(b) Making of paper locations of probable routes, show- 
ing approximate line and profile of each route. 

(c) Estimates of cost of superstructure, etc. 

(d) Determination of cost of equipment. Preliminary 
plotting of schedules for the purpose of ascertaining ap- 
proximate details of equipment. 

(e) Determination of probable gross earnings. 

(f) Determination of fixed charges and cost of operation 
and maintenance upon schedules as proposed. 

III. EiNAL Engineering Work. (Chaps. YIII-XYI.) 

(a) Einal consideration of the details of construction of 
superstructure, and details of engineering, such as power 
stations, rolling stock, etc. 



INTRODUCTORY. 5 

(b) Securing right of way. 

(c) Necessity for the provision of specifications clearly 
defining required conditions. 

(d) Remarks on what specifications should be; that is, 
specifications should be drawn to specify, essentially, per- 
formance, and should only incorporate details of manufac- 
ture where there are several methodb' of obtainino: the same 
object, one or more of which are recognized as better than 
the others. 

(e) Remarks about construction. 

(f ) Most propitious time for starting of any new road. 

ly. Operation" and Management. (Chaps. XVII, XVIII 

and Appendix.) 

(a) Organization of operating department. 

(b) Economic considerations governing the construction 
of an electric road. 

(c) Specifications for a moderate-sized and high-speed 
interurban railway. 



CHAPTEK II. 

PRELIMINARY OFFICE DETERMINATIONS. 

The original idea to connect two or more centers of popu- 
lation by an electric railway generally originates in the fertile 
and never-tiring mind of one or more promoters. A promoter 
is a prime mover of civilization. Before the promoters have 
proceeded far, however, they recognize the necessity for com- 
petent technical advice and assistance, with the result that an 
engineer is employed. 

The first duty of the engineer should be to make a careful, 
although general, investigation to determine approximately 
the probable income or business of the proposed road, for the 
purpose of advising his clients whether to proceed and incur 
the relatively large expenses which further and especially a 
conclusive investigation will require. 

In order to determine this question, he should have re- 
course to the United States census reports, as well as to such 
school and other local census reports as he can obtain. Once 
in possession of these population statistics, he should next 
ascertain the general characteristics of the population centers, 
that is, are they of the manufacturing, mining, agricultural, 
or other variety ? All of the foregoing can be secured without 
visiting the proposed location, by having recourse to the statis- 
tics just referred to and by questioning the originators or 
promoters of the road. 

The next recourse should be to existing statistics relating 
to populations, as nearly similar as possible to those under 
consideration. Such statistics show: 

First. The population tributary to the line of road per mile 
of road. 

Second. The rides per capita per annum. 

Third. The receipts per capita per annum. 

Fourth. The receipts per mile of road per annum. 

In making such comparisons care should be taken to select 

[6] 



PRELIMIXARY OFFICE DETERMINATIONS. 7 

not only roads similar to the line proposed in length, char- 
acter of equipment, and tributary population, but also in such 
local conditions as will affect the riding per capita and per 
car mile. Thus manufacturing communities will naturally 
be found to show a larger number of rides per capita than 
those of equal population where the pursuits are of an agri- 
cultural character. Difference in the ^' riding habit " will 
also produce large variations in statistics from cities or towns 
which otherwise seem sufficiently similar for purposes of com- 
parison. 

Table I below contains some statistics of the kind referred 
to: 

TABLE I. 
Approximate Earnings, Etc., for Different Inferur'ban Populations. 



CASE NUMBER. 



Tribu- 
tary 

Popula- 
tion. 


Popula- 
tion per 
Mile of 
Track. 


Gross 
Earnings 
per Mile 
of Track 
per An- 
num. 


Gross 
Earnings 
per Cap- 
ita per 
Annuna. 


Miles 
Single 
Track. 


120,000 


1,764 


$8,008 


$4.54 


68 


18,000 


1,200 


5,478 


4.56 


15 


60,000 


1,463 


5,216 


3.61 


41 


120,000 


732 


4,000 


5.46 


164 


24,500 


1,114 


4,400 


4.00 


22 


98.000 


1,750 


14,000 


8.00 


56 


21,500 


935 


10,500 


11.23 


23 


275,000 


1,100 


7,600 


6.91 


250 


54,000 


1,200 


3.600 


3.00 


45 


81,000 


1.884 


3,100 


1.64 


43 


53,000 


1,205 


4,800 


4.00 


44 


36,000 


667 


3,300 


4.98 


54 


60,000 


2,857 


7,000 


2.45 


21 


79.000 


1,197 


6,400 


5.34 


66 



Times 
Popula- 
tion 
Carried. 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 



92 

85 



162 

115 

130 

54 

33 

75 

99 

54 

121 



In the foregoing table is shown some statistical informa- 
tion, computed from data at hand, of interurban roads now 
actually operating for a sufficient period of time to make the 
data reliable. This table, or one like it, can very profitably 
be used in the preliminary or office determinations of the 
engineer, entered upon for the purpose of ascertaining 
whether the proposed road possesses sufficient merit to war- 



8 ELECTKW RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

rant proceeding with the subsequent and costly engineering 
work. 

Gases I^os. 3, 4, 5, 7 approximate nearly the conditions of 
the high-speed roads. The other cases are those of the high- 
class interurban roads built upon public highways, the 
average schedule speeds of which are between 10 and 16 
miles per hour. The schedule speeds of 3, 4, 5, Y will average 
nearer 20 miles per hour. Cases Nos. 9 to 14 are for groups 
of roads in one of the I^ew England States. 

It is impossible to give generally the minimum pay- 
ing population per mile of track because, evidently, this 
varies according to local conditions and is also being de- 
creased as a result of changing conditions and constant and 
more marked use of railways by the public. As a rule it 
might be said that a tributary population of from 500 to 
700 per mile of track will constitute the minimum, al- 
though there are cases where a fairly profitable traffic has 
been built up, in connection with freight transportation, on a 
basis of 400 inhabitants per mile of track. In calculating 
population tributary to a road radiating from a large city, it 
is not customary to include the total population of this ter- 
minal, otherwise a road with scarcely any population outside 
of the large city would make a magnificent showing of popu- 
lation per mile of track. 

The effect upon the traffic of an interurban system, due to 
a large city being situated at one of its termini, will un- 
doubtedly be considerable, on account of the facility afforded 
by high speed railroads for the distribution of urban popu- 
lations along its lines. The latest installations of high-class 
interurban railroads have already demonstrated this readi- 
ness of urban populations to spread out where proper trans- 
portation facilities exist. In estimating upon earnings, etc., 
for a proposed system I have always found it safe to take as 
a tributary population to the proposed road, that which is 
to be found within one-quarter mile to three-quarters of a 
mile on each side of the line of the road. This practice has 
been adhered to where the road passed through parts of large 



PRELIMINARY OFFICE DETERMINATIONS. 9 

cities and had a terminal in such large city. The engineer 
must also not lose sight of the fact that relatively high-speed 
interurban roads have at times completely altered the distribu- 
tion of populations in and about cities and will probably do so 
to a greater extent in the future on account of recent improve- 
ments in the direction of increased safety, comfort, and speed. 
Generally speaking, such systems should be credited with the 
tributary population between and of their termini within 
one-quarter mile to three-quarters of a mile on each side of the 
road in making estimates, etc. This is, of course, on the as- 
sumption that there exists no like road at the time serving the 
territory properly or improperly, but where other transporta- 
tion facilities, such as possibly steam or street surface elec- 
tric may exist. Again, large termini have proved invaluable 
supporters of pleasure and general recreation business. 

It is also important in making comparisons between two 
properties to follow the same method of obtaining population 
along the line. Thus, it is manifestly wrong to take the 1900 
census in one case and count only the population of the in- 
corporated towms and villages reached by the road, while in 
another case to take the latest local estimate and add to it 
the rural population within, five or ten miles on each 
side. It is also a notable fact that the less the population 
per mile of track the greater will the earnings usually be 
per capita. In other words, a system operating through a 
number of large towns ^vill not get as much business from 
each person in those places as it will per caj)ita from the in- 
habitants of smaller towns. 

Practicing railway engineers should and generally do 
have most extensive statistics of this kind. Those in 
Table I relating essentially to interurban roads are given 
partly for the purpose of indicating the form in which 
such statistics can be compiled, and partly to show how 
greatly the results from properties differently situated vary. 
Any figures of this kind to be reliable should indicate the 
latest obtainable data and these obviously are best attainable 
from periodical publications. It might be said here that the 



10 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



annual reports of the Railroad Commissioners of the states 
of New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut as well as the 
census report on street railways and such financial annuals 
as are devoted to street railway statistics, are invaluable for 
detailed statistical information of all kinds relating to the 
railroads which they contain. Too much emphasis, however, 
cannot be laid upon the unwisdom of drawing specific con- 
clusions from the results derived from roads operating under 
entirely different conditions. Table II gives some statistics 
for interurban railways for the year ending June 30, 1902 ; 

TABLE II. 

Traffic on Different Interurhan Railways. 





Fare Pas- 


Fare Pas- 


Miles of 


sengers 


sengers 


Track. 


per Mile 


per Car 




of Track. 


Mile. 


62.96 


86,131 


3.14 


150.06 


64,777 


2.56 


56.18 


75,419 


4.04 


37.04 


72,659 


2.95 


379.26 


122,137 


4.98 


440.38 


157,363 


4.90 


14.84 


68,052 


3.46 


91.42 


21.265 


1.30 


52.63 


11,212 


1.34 


69.00 


12,464 


1.19 


22.16 


141,347 


5.55 


36.61 


68,287 


2.62 


44.50 


23,720 


1.72 


134.10 


31,670 


2.82 


47.54 


38,766 


5.18 


78.85 


49,961 


1.87 


76.50 


30,017 


2.04 


43.26 


83,235 


1.84 


110.25 


78,818 


3.10 


55.60 


6,537 


2.00 


46.70 


15,632 


1.03 


183.41 


20,102 


1.59 


42.25 


75,574 


3.60 


148.81 


94,849 


3.74 


27.50 


173,065 


4.02 


83.81 


59,276 


3.30 


56.00 


80,497 


3.55 


16.50 


55,577 


5.56 


61.70 


39,717 


2.46 



Fare Pas- 
sengers 
per Car 
Hour. 



Elgin, Aurora & Southern 

Union Traction, Anderson, Ind 

Lewiston, Brunswick & Bath 

Lexington & Boston 

Old Colony Street Railway 

Boston & Northern 

Northampton & Amherst 

Detroit, Ypsilanti & Ann Arbor 

Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muskegon 
Grand Rapids, Holland & Lake Michigan . 

Houghton County Street Railway 

Southwest Missouri Electric Railway 

Albany and Hudson Railway & Power 

Hudson Valley Railway 

Rochester & Sodus Bay 

Cincinnati, Dayton & Toledo 

Cleveland, Elyria & Western 

Cleveland, Painesville & Eastern 

Northern Ohio Traction 

Dayton, Springfield & Urbana 

Dayton & Troy 

Lake Shore 

Youngstown-Sharon Railway & Light 

Lehigh Valley Traction 

Altoona & Logan Valley 

Conestoga Traction 

Pittsburg, McKeesport & Connellsville . . . 

Wilkesbarre, Dallas & Harvey Lake 

Northern Texas Traction 



29.13 
23.32 
46.07 



45.71 
44.45 
30.74 
87.59 
27.33 
38.91 
40.33 



26.58 



16.71 
22.62 



31.16 
88.30 
33.12 



69.79 
13.82 



This investigation of probable traffic will be con- 
sidered more in detail in Chapter VI. Its treatment 
at this time is only general and for the object only of reach- 



PRELIMINARY OFFICE DETERMINATIONS. 11 

ing a roTigli approximation of the future earnings of the road. 
With this in mind, and with the population and its distribu- 
tion before him, together with the approximate length of the 
proposed road, it is a matter of simple mutiplication and 
division for the engineer to approximate the future traffic on 
his proposed road. 

For instance, suppose a number of centers of population or 
towns represented by the points A, B, C, D, E, F, are located 
along a line. 

Let 
P = total population tributary to line of proposed railroad. 
L = approximate length of proposed railroad between ter- 
mini. 
A = receipts per capita per annum for approximately similar 

population and conditions. 
M = receipts per mile of road per annum for approximately 
similar population and conditions. 

Then we have 
AxP=probable gross receipts on per capita basis. 
M X L = probable gross receipts on basis of population tribu- 
tary to proposed line. 
P 
-p -.:== tributary population per mile of line of proposed road, 

which should be compared with that of successful 
existing installations. 

AxP 

— ^=: probable gross revenue per mile of the proposed 

road, which should be comj)ared with the re- 
sults of approximately similar enterprises, as 
shown in such statistical data as Table I. 
The probable gross earnings together with a knowledge of 
the probable total cost of the road obtained by multiplying 
the length of the proposed road in miles, by the known ap- 
proximate cost per mile of road of similar enterprises, which 
information will be found in the chapters on Track Con- 
struction, Power Stations, etc., will determine whether the 



12 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS, 

project is of sufficient merit to warrant proceeding further 
with it, that is, it will show roughly whether the relations 
between probable business and probable total cost are such 
as will probably produce a proper return upon the invest- 
ment probably required. 

It is in these preliminary matters and determinations that 
the value of conservative, experienced, and conscientious en- 
gineering and railway engineers is realized. A competent 
railway engineer will advise at once whether the enterprise 
is worth proceeding with and expending the considerable 
amount of money which will be required for the subsequent 
engineering work. 

Granting that these preliminary conclusions are favorable, 
the engineer next proceeds to inform himself about the physi- 
cal and more detailed characteristics of the proposed road and 
territory. The first step in this direction is to secure the best 
maps of the territory, such as those published by the United 
States Government and the various states, cities, towns, and 
counties which will be served by the proposed road. The maps 
of theUnited States Coast and Geodetic Survey are invaluable 
for use in connection with these preliminary determinations. 
These maps show contours and are generally quite accurate. 
By using them, a proposed line can be roughly sketched in 
and an approximate line and profile obtained from the 
contours, which can be checked by the use of such county 
and other maps as may be accessible. These maps can also 
be used with advantage by the preliminary surveying or field 
parties, which will be referred to in the next chapter. 



CHAPTER III. 

PRELIMINARY FIELD SURVEY. 

We have assumed, now, that the engineer has carefully 
compared the data supplied by the promoters with all local 
and other sources of information which are available without 
a personal visit to the locality, and that his office determina- 
tion is such as to be generally favorable to the construction of 
the road. We also assume that he is supplied with maps of 
the locality and a roughly approximate line and profile 
sketched on the general map mentioned in the last chapter. 
He is now in a position to make a personal inspection of tha 
territory. 

He should start at one of the termini and \dsit each of 
the population centers in person, noting, carefully, the char- 
acteristics of the people, the character of the population, the 
number and kind of the industries, and their probable stabil- 
ity. As this last consideration is ordinarily somewhat diffi- 
cult to determine, it is best to obtain it by consulting the local 
bankers, who are readily and easily approached through the 
medium of introductory letters from bankers among the 
engineer's business connections or associates at his place 
of business. 

Careful attention should also be paid on this personal 
reconnaissance to all existing recreation points, that is, pic- 
nic grounds, and other resorts which are likely to promote 
traffic. If none exists, the engineer should note where Jt 
would be possible and best to locate and develop them and 
estimate their probable cost, as well as the probable support 
which such a resort or resorts would receive. The recreation 
business of any railroad is a most important branch of its 
business. All of the revenue derived from such sources may 
be said to be almost entirely profit, as such additional revenue 
is obtained at a relatively insignificant cost for doing the 
business. Recreation resorts along the lines of a great many 

[13] 



14 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

railroads are the buoys which have for many years saved 
them from financial shipwreck. The importance of recre- 
ation resorts will be better appreciated when it is remem- 
bered that they attract traffic from probably the first of 
June until the first of September in northern climates, and 
much longer in southern climates, and that in conjunction 
with adequate and cheap transportation facilities, they af- 
ford practically the only relaxation for by far the major 
portion of every population, that is, the working men and 
women and their families. 

After the preliminary office work, already described, has 
been done, the engineer should take no data which he him- 
self has not verified as the basis for any conclusion. He now 
has the entire responsibility to bear. His report will be 
the basis for all the subsequent operations of the syndicate 
or company. 

The collateral obligations of the company issued to pro- 
vide money to construct the road will be subscribed to and 
sold largely upon his report as a basis or foundation. Pro- 
moters, real estate speculators and to^vn boomers will paint 
eloquent portraits of the marvelous stability, development, 
and Aladdin-like characteristics of the territory proposed 
to be served by the road. It may do no harm to listen 
to such eloquence, but none of it should be allowed to 
creep into the report until it has been fully checked and 
verified, if a verification be possible. 

The object of the engineer's inspection, in addition to the 
above, is to make a preliminary rough survey or reconnais- 
sance of the proposed route which shall form the basis for 
the running of the preliminary location lines by the field 
parties or surveyors who will follow him. For this pur- 
pose the engineer should take with him a few portable field 
instruments, by the use of which he will determine approxi- 
mate lines, directions, elevations, and conditions. The 
instruments commonly used for such purposes are a port- 
able compass, and hand-level or clinometer. 



FKELIMINARY FIELD SURVEY, 15 

To do this reconnaissance work conscientiously the engi- 
neer should walk over the possible routes. The word 
routes is used because the reconnaissance should develop sev- 
eral possible routes for consideration. A careful study 
should also be made of all possible routes through the vari- 
ous towns, cities, or other population centers. This detail 
cannot be too strongly emphasized. There is not the least 
doubt that disregard of the convenience of the public, 
by locating a line and stations at inconvenient distances from 
centers of populations, has been the cause of the unfor- 
tunate culmination of more railroad enterprises than all 
other causes combined. This does not mean that the line 
must necessarily be located and constructed through the 
centers of existing cities or towns. As a matter of fact 
such a plan might and very probably often would load an 
enterprise with such a heavy burden of fixed charges as to 
make failure a certainty from the outset. A good prac- 
tice is not only to locate as near an existing center of popu- 
lation as possible, that is always well within the suburbs, 
but also along a line which will, on account of the develop- 
ment of the locality, be well through a center of popula- 
tion within a given period, say three or five years after 
commencing operation. 

The engineer should always remember that railroads are 
built for the convenience of the public, and that the rev- 
enue of such enterprises will be an essential function of the 
conveniences afforded. Transportation is a marketable com- 
modity, the value of which may be made very great, or 
relatively nothing, as the public convenience is catered to 
or neglected by locating its route and stations so as to facili- 
tate the public convenience, or in disregard of it. The 
best route, as regards alignment and grades, may be the 
worst possible route from a commercial standpoint. 

Railroads have been built which were technical en- 
gineering ideals, and whereon the cost of operation per car 
mile, or per ton mile, would have been ridiculously low for 



It) ELEVTIiW RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

a fair volume of business. But, on account of lack of busi- 
ness, due to a disregard of fundamental requisites, the roads 
were lost to the original owners and passed into the hands 
of others, under such conditions that they could be made 
part of some connecting or adjoining systems, and be held 
until the requisite business for the proper maintenance could 
be developed. It is well always to bear in mind that every 
business must be planned to pay, and that a railroad is no 
exception to the rule. In fact, on account of the nature of its 
business, that is always having a supply in excess of the de- 
mand, in other words, an average carrying capacity in excess 
of the passengers carried, it is a most exacting case de- 
manding the highest engineering and commercial thought, 
sagacity, and consideration. 

When the engineer has concluded his personal recon- 
naissance, he will have, in addition to a personal knovdedge 
of the cities, towns, and other population centers, deter- 
mined upon two or more probable routes, each of wdiich is 
to be investigated by the subsequent surveying parties, for 
which matters are now ready. 

The preliminary locating party is generally composed of 
the following: 

1 chief of party. 
1 transitman. 

1 recorder for the transit measurements. 

2 flagmen or chainmen. 
1 leveler. 

1 recorder for the levels. 

1 rodman. 

1 topographer. 

1 topographer's assistant. 

2 laborers to clean any brush, etc., 
or tweh^e men in all. 

The chief of the party should, and generally does, accom- 
pany the engineer in making the preliminary reconnaissance. 
The preliminary locating corps commences at one of the 



PRELIMINARY FIELD SURVEY, 17 

termini and determines or runs two or more routes^ estab- 
lishing the line with the transit, and taking the levels at 
the same time. The topographer follows the leveling party, 
taking the elevations as they are marked on the stakes at 
intervals as a basis, and sketchiag in on his map the char- 
acteristics of the territory, on each side of the transit line. 
The map on which he works shows as yet simply the line 
and transit stations and is prepared the night before from 
the observations of the transit and level parties of the preced- 
ing day, as explained below. The topographer indicates on 
this map: 

1. Contours for each change of elevation of five feet. 

2. Location and kind and approximate value of buildings 
and other structures on each side of the transit line. 

3. Character of surrounding soil, that is, whether the 
appearance indicates rock or earth; character and stability 
of all slopes. 

4. Courses and characteristics of streams and water-ways. 

For this purpose the topographer carries with him a hand- 
level, portable compass, and a fifty-foot chain. The hand- 
level easily determines the elevation and contours very 
closely, by taking as the height of the instrument the eye, 
which is generally about five feet, and noting with the 
other eye where the sight-line through the hand-level strikes 
the soil. This distance is then measured with the tape, 
and sketched in and then noted on the sheet held on the 
portable drawing-board carried by the topographer. This 
portable drawing-board is about 24''xl8" with adjustable 
rollers mounted on two opposite sides. The sketch, pre- 
pared the evening before from the transit and level notes 
of the preceding day's work, is adjusted on these rollers 
and unrolled as the topographical party progresses. The 
distance on each side of the transit line to which the topog- 
raphy should be taken and shown varies with circumstances. 
As a rule it will be found sufficient to take data for 500 
feet on each side of the center line. In a case where both 

2 



18 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

sides of a ridge possess advantages, it may be taken for 
1,000 feet on one side and 500 feet on the other. The tak- 
ing of the data for 1,000 feet or more on one side often 
obviates the necessity of running a second preliminary line 
for part of the distance, practically paralleling the base line 
on which the topographer has worked during the first survey. 

The chief of the party, as well as the transitman and lev- 
eler, should always make careful mental notes of everything 
along the line. 

The day's work should always be plotted on cross-section 
paper, in duplicate, each night. The transit and level notes 
should also be transferred to another set of field-books each 
night. One of these sets of records is kept in a safe place 
at the base of operation, generally the hotel or inn. The 
other is carried into the field. The object of duplicating 
the records is to avoid the unfortunate and always expen- 
sive consequences which the loss of field-books and records 
involves. 

It is while these preliminary investigations and surveys 
are in progress, and which will form the basis for the sub- 
sequent detail investigations and surveys, that attention 
should be paid to those all-important matters of alignment 
and grades. Long tangents should be sought for, and when 
curves are necessary, their actual length should be made ao 
short as possible, having regard to the proposed schedule 
speed. In this respect electric road construction dif- 
fers from that of steam railroad practice, as steam rail- 
road engineers, as a rule, favor long curves. The principal 
reasons for the difference are two in number, viz. : 

The electric road operation will be in shorter train lengths, 
hence, conversely, the headway will probably be shorter 
and there is greater reason for a clear view ahead. All 
curves cause an appreciable loss of time. ISTo competent mo- 
torman will take such chances as would be involved in 
operating a train around a curve at fifty or sixty miles an 
hour on a short headway service, with the view ahead of 



PRELIMINARY FIELD SURVEY, 19 

him obstructed for any considerable length of time. 
The other reason is that the speed of the electric train 
is better under control than that of the steam train. 
It can consequently quickly accelerate to full speed after 
passing a curve and make far better average time than on 
a line built for steam traction with long curves and short 
tangents. The object of the engineer should therefore be 
to get the car or train on the straight track or tangent as 
soon as possible. 

As an illustration of the effect of introducing long curves 
may be cited a recent application of opposing interests to the 
Supreme Court of 'New York to compel the New York & 
Port Chester Railroad to change its line and among other 
things introduce a long curve. In opposing the change for the 
Port Chester Company the writer showed, by comparative 
run sheets and accompanying schedules, that the proposed 
curve would entail a loss of six seconds per trip. As the 
schedules provided for 200 trips each way per day, the total 
time loss per day equalled 2,400 seconds or about 40 minutes. 
As the estimated daily earnings were about $4,000 per day, 
the loss of 40 minutes of the use of the system per day was 
apparently a serious matter, and was so held by the court. In 
addition there entered the paramount consideration of public 
safety which was cited by the court as the most potent of 
the Port Chester Company's contentions in its replies to the 
proposed change of the line. 

The reader should not understand from w^hat has been said 
that it is desirable to always use short radii curves. On the 
contrary, the curve radii should be made as long as the 
conditions will permit. The controlling conditions are the 
angle between the tangents and the speeds which must be 
made on the curve to maintain the schedules. There are 
a number of tables giving safe speeds for different curves 
and corresponding super-elevations of the outer rail. 
Roughly, the speed in miles per hour which can be safely 
made on a curve is equal to the square root of the radius 



20 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

of the curve, the radius being measured in feet. This will 
give an ample factor of safety and is only given as a rough 
general approximation. 

Curves should be of the transition type and should prefer- 
ably be at the stations or stopping places. When they are 
at the stations they affect the schedules the least. 

If rivers are to be crossed by the proposed line this fact 
will usually affect the location. The banks of the river will 
have to be examined for suitable locations -for the bridge 
foundations, and if the soil at all points is undesirable for 
this purpose the entire route may have to be altered so as 
to cross at a place favorable for bridging. If the course 
of a river is followed, the preliminary survey should include 
an examination of both banks to determine which is the 
more desirable, but if the river is easily bridged the route 
may cross from one side to the other occasionally, depending 
on the favorable nature of each side for road construction. 

In connection with the subject of railroad location, it is 
pertinent to call attention to the inestimable advantages ac- 
cruing from the keeping of accurate diaries, l^ot only should 
the engineer keep a diary wherein should be recorded at 
the end of each day, not only all occurrences, but some 
of his impressions and conclusions as well, but he should re- 
quire the chief of the field party, together with the transit- 
man and leveler, to do likewise. It is a good plan to call 
for these diaries at unexpected times. 

Care should, however, always be taken to separate all 
facts from the engineer's conclusions in keeping diaries. 
While conclusions are sometimes valuable, the facts as they 
are or were are often imperative. 

The practice of keeping such diaries, it might be men- 
tioned, is often of equal value in other kinds of engineering 
work. In some important cases, upon the conclusion of the 
work the writer has had his entire diary relating to the 
construction typewritten, using a separate page for each 
day, and has presented one copy to his clients. From the 



PRELIMINARY FIELD SURVEY, 21 

letters whicli have always subsequently been received ac- 
knowledging receipt of these books, it is evident that such 
records are appreciated. 

When the field party has run the preliminary lines, the 
engineer has in his office, in connection with his personal 
investigations, all the data required for the following 
purposes: 

1. Making an accurate paper location of the proposed 
route. 

2. Making an estimate of the cost of the proposed railway 
upon which to base the financial scheme. 

3. Making an estimate of the probable earnings of the 
proposed railroad. 

4. Making an estimate of the fixed charges, such as the 
interest on the bonds, debentures, or other corporate obliga- 
tions required, or money required to be borrowed or other- 
wise obtained to construct the road, and of the costs of 
operation and maintenance. 

He is now ready to commence the Detail Investigations, 
etc., in order to carefully develop the details of the project, 
but before proceeding to do so, attention will be called to a 
few other very important matters. 

If an engineer would be a success he must recognize as 
prerequisites of his intangible equipment: 

First. The policy of Silence or Secrecy. Especially must 
he adopt this policy in his operations in and about cities and 
towns. His clients or the company emplopng him have 
a perfect right to a policy which is none of the concern of 
land boomers and real estate operators and speculators. 
Until the requisite real estate for the right of way has been 
acquired by the syndicate, secrecy is absolutely indispensable. 

Second. The possession of Tact and Diplomacy. Both of 
these attributes are indispensable in order to retain the 
omnipotent public support and public confidence, and in 
dealing with legislative, executive, judicial, and other tri- 



22 ELECTRIC RAIL^¥AY ECONOMICS. 

biinals, etc., such as common councils, town boards, various 
commissions, referees, arbitrators, etc., which the engineer- 
ing and executive heads of railroads must do. He must 
never lose his temper no matter how great the real or fancied 
cause. Sound argument will generally prevail, and it should 
not be forgotten that ridicule is not argument. 

Third. Uprightness. If he cannot, for any reason of pol- 
icy or otherwise, tell the truth, it is better to make no 
statement whatever. He should cultivate habits of thought, 
listening, and silence^ always remembering that a good 
listener is always welcome, and always carries away more 
information than a talker. At all events, he should not 
misrepresent or exaggerate. If he must and does talk, 
let him tell the plain, unadulterated facts, and do it in as 
few w^ords as possible. 

In carrying out the policy of Secrecy in and about the 
towns and population centers, it is often desirable to deter- 
mine the preliminary field lines by the use of Stadia meas- 
urements. Such measurements require a very small 
number of men, who are generally mistaken for land meas- 
uring parties. 

x\bove all, the preliminary reconnaissance and field work 
must be done in the most thorough and painstaking man- 
ner. The engineer need not be afraid that he may get too 
much data in regard to the distribution of the populations 
or their characteristics, or that he may obtain too many 
contours or too much other field information. The danger 
of too little information is far greater. It is very incon- 
venient as well as expensive to send a party back into the 
field for additional data which could usually have been ob- 
tained at the outset for a trifling additional cost. 

One of the most effective resources at the disposal of 
the engineer for reducing the cost of construction and sub- 
sequent operation and maintenance is in the painstaking 
and detail consideration of the location of the line and the 



PRELIMINARY FIELD SURVEY. 28 

exhaustive study of each and all of the elements which de- 
velop in connection with the determination of the location. 

A good corps organized, as has been outlined, will make, 
on an average, about three-fourths mile per day for this 
class of work and do good work. Many parties make as much 
as three miles per day, but usually in relatively open country 
Avith the population closely congested only at certain distant 
points. 

The cost of this preliminary field work, by which is meant 
the salaries and Avages and board and lodging of the men 
and incidental expenses, will vary between $65 per mile 
of line as a minimum, where conditions are favorable, and 
$120 per mile of line, as a maximum. 

The field engineering investigations and subsequent de- 
velopment of a proposed railroad enterprise may be divided 
as follows: 

1. Reconnaissance. 

Proposal of various alternate routes. Approximate cost 
of each, also approximate estimated earnings of each and 
relative costs of operation and maintenance of each. 

2. Preliminary survey and investigations. 

Selection of the most practicable locations for preparation 
of general maps. More reliable estimates of total cost and 
cost of operation and probable revenue. Paper location 
of lines, etc. 

3. Detail investigations and office locations. 

Preparation of maps and plotting data. Final ofiice loca- 
tion of line, showing final alignment and elevations, also soil 
investigations, from wdiich the approximate graduation cost 
is determined. Detail special eistimates of probable rev- 
enue. Cost of construction and cost of operation. 

4. Pinal field location, property maps, and ofiice work. 

(a) Cross-sectioning of the final line. 

(b) Soundings or borings to accurately determine soil 
characteristics. 



24 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

(c) Preparation of a complete detail continTious set and 
all individual property maps. 

(d) General and detail plans and specifications. 

(e) Letting of contracts for construction and placing in 
operation of the road. 

There are cases where the engineer can pass directly from 
the reconnaissance to the detail investigations and surveys. 
In many cases the preliminary and detail investigations and 
surveys are not separated. It v^ill usually be found far 
more satisfactory, certainly for the inexperienced engineer, 
to adhere to the subdivisions given above for the following 
reasons: 

First. It will teach him the details of the process and 
accustom him to habits of accuracy and painstaking effort. 
There is at present entirely too much slipshod engineer- 
ing, as well as engineering by proxy. 

Second. When he once thoroughly knows the details of 
the processes he will then be qualified to determine himself 
what to do, or, probably better, what not to do. 

Third. It is always better to do too much work rather 
than too little. A reputation for thoroughness, accuracy, 
and experience is the epitome of an engineering reputation. 

Fourth. Thorough and experienced engineering is always 
ultimately profitable to both the capitalist and the engineer. 



CHAPTEE lY. 

DETAILED OFFICE INVESTIGATION OF TRACK LOCATION. 

The engineer is now prepared to arrive at conclusions from 
the data collected in his field survey. In doing this he 
should remember that the controlling features required for 
the success of high-speed interurban railways in the order 
of their importance are : 

First. Safety to the public and the employees of the rail- 
road in the operation of the road. 

Second. Reliability of operation. 

Third. Convenience and comfort of the public. 

Fourth. An installation which, while fulfilling the pre- 
ceding conditions, shall be so installed as to have a minimum 
cost for operation and maintenance. 

The first condition will be most nearly approximated for 
high speeds, by locating, constructing, and operating the 
road on an individual or exclusive or a private right of way, 
by having no crossings at grade of any public streets, ave- 
nues, or liighways or other railroads, and above all having no 
single track^ with turn-outs or siding construction where 
cars pass each other. Single-track railroads have been and 
are the cause of the major portion of railroad casualties 
and receiverships. If the prospective business will not sup- 
port the relatively small additional cost of another track, it is 
generally not worth going after. A large measure toward 
the fulfillment of the second condition will likewise be at- 
tained by the use of the private right of way, double track 
or individual tracks for cars going in the same direction, and 
the elimination of grade crossings throughout. 

The convenience and comfort of the public will depend 
upon the location of the line and stations and also upon the 
equipment. 

The fourth condition, and often the pivot about which the 
commercial success of the enterprise revolves, depends en- 

[25] 



26 ELECTRIC RAILWAY EC0N03JICS. 

tirely upon the character of the material used, the work done 
in the construction and equipment, and the design, arrange- 
ment, and disposition of the plant. There is no truer paradox 
than that '^A cheaply installed railway is a most expensive 
one." It should never be forgotten or lost sight of in de- 
termining upon any elements of design or construction that 
railroads are built to be operated. 

Fixed charges are absolute and determinable in advance 
for any given character of installation. The operating and 
maintenance costs of an installation poorly engineered and 
poorly installed are not only uncertain and indeterminable 
but unavoidably variable and cumulative. 

The ideal commercial railroad line is not always, and in 
fact is hardly ever, the most direct route between the ter- 
mini. The commercially ideal line is the one having a maxi- 
mum of paying population per mile of road immediately 
tributary to its line. Centers of population are seldom in a 
straight line connecting the first and last of a number of such 
centers. The line must reach those places where the busi- 
ness will exist. It has repeatedly been proven that it is an 
error to suppose that centers of population will immediately 
extend or hasten to transfer themselves to accommodate a 
railroad. From this the writer does not wish to be under- 
stood as saying that increased transportation facilities will 
not develop the territory served. As a matter of fact, they 
certainly will, but the probability of competition which is 
generally supported by public opinion, where the convenience 
and comfort of the public are disregarded, should never be 
lost sight of. The best way to head off any possible danger- 
ous competition is to secure the most advantageous and im- 
mediately remunerative location for the line and stations, 
having regard to fixed charges on account of real estate, etc. 
Consequently, from the preliminary data, routes should be 
selected which will pass well within the bounds of each of 
the population centers. Such routes should be carefully 
studied for the purpose of ascertaining the relative earning 



OFFICE IXVESTIGATIO^\ 27 

and operating cliaracteristics of these routes and the approxi- 
mate costs of construction. 

In some cases it is considered advisable to build the electric 
railway along the highway, and many of the present inter- 
urban roads have been constructed in this manner. This 
plan of course precludes high speeds, but it has the occasional 
advantage of locating the road where it is most convenient 
of access, and occasionally franchises can be secured for the 
use of a highway at a less first cost than if the right of way 
be purchased outright. Very frequently, however, this ap- 
parent advantage is more than obliterated by the annual 
^^ compensation '' exacted by the authorities for the use of 
the street or highway. This " compensation " is nothing 
more than a fixed charge and should always be so considered. 
If this plan is followed the engineer must also be prepared 
to sacrifice an ideal alignment and grade line. Nevertheless 
grades and curves are not such serious obstacles to an electric 
road as to steam roads, and the resulting advantages of fol- 
lowing the path of beaten travel, particularly the highway 
through a town or prosperous village community, are at times 
too great to be disregarded. An excellent plan in passing 
through such a town, where high speed is not a great 
desideratum, is to enter as far as possible over a private 
right of way parallel to and not too far from the main high- 
way. If the railway is located, for instance, 300 to 400 
feet from the highway it is sufiiciently far from it to clear 
the houses and barns along the road and the entrances to 
them, and at the same time is sufiiciently near to them to 
afford convenient transportation. The railway can then be 
turned into the highway when town limits are reached. 

In determining upon a railroad installation it is entirely 
probable that at some point, w^hich may be four or five miles 
or more from the main line as laid out, connecting the most 
important centers of population, there will be another center 
or centers of population, which it may be deemed desirable 
or preferable to tap. Such instances occur, not only where 



28 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

there exists a relatively large fixed population of say any- 
where between 5,000 and 10,000 people, but also in cases 
where noted recreation or summer resorts are already in exist- 
ance. At first thought the tendency is to run a branch line to 
such points, from the main line. 

Generally speaking, branch lines are not desirable. The 
reason for this is that trains running from the terminus of 
the branch line to a point on the main line are really noth- 
ing more than shuttle trains. The most desirable facilities 
cannot be given in such cases for the reason that, as a general 
rule, it is not profitable to run from either one, or both, of 
the main line termini through to the branch line terminus 
without change of cars. The result is that passengers are 
compelled to get out of the branch line car and transfer in 
order to reach their destination over the main line. 

Again, the relative costs of operation per mile of branch 
line are, generally, considerably in excess of similar costs for 
main line operation. This is due, of course, to the fact that 
over such branch line there is a relatively small traffic. ISTot- , 
withstanding this fact, trainmen, station agents, and other 
standard items of expense are maintained throughout the 
year, for the reason that the branch line must be kept in good 
condition as a part of the general system. In all cases where 
such relatively isolated centers of population or business 
points may occur, the proper w^ay is to try and get the main 
line through such points, even if a slight detour is necessary, 
if the business in the near future bids fair to warrant this 
step. If such isolated business centers be, say five miles dis- 
tant from the main line, the additional length of the main 
line due to running to such isolated points will, by no means, 
be increased by five miles. This statement will be apparent 
without demonstration. 

In all cases where such circumstances may arise, the scien- 
tific method of procedure is to ascertain first what will be the 
additional cost of causing the main line to deviate from its 
course to such an extent as to take in the isolated center or 



OFFICE INVESTIGATION. 29 

centers. Such additional cost^ that is, the fixed charges plus 
the operating and maintenance costs of such additional mile- 
age, should be balanced against the probable additional 
revenue which ^\t.11 result by deviating the line as indicated. 

There are cases, of course, where branch lines can be shown 
to be preferable to running the main line out of its course. 
Such cases would occur, for instance, with large recreation 
resorts where the business would exist for but two or three 
months in the summer and where the company could cease to 
operate the branch during the winter or nonproductive 
period of each year. Under such circumstances, if the 
main line be deviated to include such points, we Avill have 
added for the remaining' nine months of the vear the cost of 
operating the entire car service over what will probably be 
an unproductive mileage. The determination of the advisa- 
bility of deidating the main line or of constructing a branch 
line must be a matter of individual and separate estimate, 
determination, and judgment for each special case, and at- 
tention is called simply to some of the considerations enter- 
ing into such problems. 

In connection with this subject, another factor might be 
mentioned — that is, that a railroad company is liable at any 
time to be ordered by the authorities to run through cars 
from some branch line, should it build one^ to one or both of 
its termini. Such a condition might very seriously affect 
its operating arrangement, and consequently the costs of 
operation. 

It must not be supposed that railroad companies can run 
railroads entirely as they please at the present day. The 
Railroad Commissions in most of the States are being vested 
Avith greater and greater powers. Such powers include among 
others the right to fix the schedules and even the routing of 
cars. These rights, of course, are given the Railroad Commis- 
sions for the purpose of facilitating public convenience and 
protecting the interests of the public. At the present time 
the public is an omnipotent entity which is making itself 



30 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



felt. Unfortunately, at times, public demands are not 'en- 
tirely just, and some of these demands undoubtedly work 
unnecessary hardships upon railroad corporations. In order 
to avoid what may be a very material hardship in the event 
of the necessity of changing the routing of cars and conse- 



T 




'^',''*^<^^ 



VIEW O^ THE WYOMING & EACKAWANXA VALLEY RAILWAY, 
A THIRD RAIL ELECTRIC ROAD. 



quently the schedules of the entire system due to the exist- 
ence of one or two branch lines, this fact must be considered. 
In other words, the advisability of constructing branch lines 
or of deviating the main line so as to take in the isolated 
centers or of paying no attention to such cases should be gone 



OFFICE INVESTIGATION. 31 

into fully with this contingency in mind and determined in 
the original design. 

Considering the actual work of laying out the line, each 
of the preliminary routes surveyed as described in Chapter 
III is now taken up in detail in the office of the engineer. 
Each is plotted and those individual characteristics relating 
to alignment and grades studied for the purpose of ascer- 
taining whether any of the routes presents any relatively 
serious or prohibitive construction or operative character- 
istics. 

In connection w^th this part of the work it will not be out 
of place to say a few words Avith reference to the scales used in 
plotting the preliminary lines. A small scale should not be 
used on account of the difficulty which will be experienced 
in satisfactorily plotting the houses, barns, and other build- 
ings along the line of route. It is always advisable to ploi 
these buildings and their immediate surroundings to scale, 
and where many such buildings occur at any locality to use a 
horizontal scale of 150 feet or 200 feet to the inch. In more 
open country a scale of not over 400 feet per inch is used. 
The vertical scale (for the profile) is generally taken at 20 
feet per inch. 

In the preliminary field surveys as described in Chapter 
III, the character of the soil and rocks was carefully noted, 
especial attention having been paid to the matter of stability 
for the purpose of determining the required rate of the side 
slopes of the cuts and embankments. 

In fixing the grade lines a study should also always be 
made of the virtual or momentum profiles of each tentative 
set of grade lines. A virtual profile is that obtained by 
plotting vertically to scale, at each point along the road, the 
height in feet to which the momentum of the train at such 
point would raise it vertically. When those points are con- 
nected by a line we have the virtual or operating profile. 
Such a computation of course involves the question of speed. 
For existing steam roads, as well as their successors — the 



32 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

heavy and high-speed electric passenger or freight roads, 
momentum profiles are of the utmost importance from the 
point of view of operating costs, as such costs are affected 
by the permissible length of trains and energy consumption. 

Momentum profiles are also important factors in determin- 
ing upon grade lines, and consequently the relative amount 
of cut and fill. As they determine conditions and costs of 
operation it is a matter of comparing an operating cost with a 
fixed charge as represented by the interest on the cost of a 
given cut or fill. 

The grade lines in croasrcountry work are determined in 
the usual manner by stretching a piece of thread between 
points. In doing this the engineer should note that the line 
of the thread is at the proper distance above or below the 
existing grades of all public highways or other railroads 
crossed by the line of the road, if no grade crossings are to 
be used, or at the proper level if the grade crossing has been 
adopted. 

For all public highways, where the highway passes beneatli 
the subgrade of the proposed road, it is usual to set the line oi 
the thread 18 feet above the grade of the highway where the 
proposed railroad passes over the highway. With the tenta- 
tive grade lines now penciled in, an approximate estimate is 
made of the probable cut and fill. 

It is especially desired here to call attention to the neces- 
sity, in the design of high-speed interurban and other rapid 
transit systems of this class, for the prowsion of subways 
or under-crossings, where the grade of the tracks is beneath 
the grade of the street or highway, or tunnels of ample 
height and width. All such subways or tunnels should be 
capable of permitting the standard steam railroad cars to 
readily pass through them on account of probable future 
developments and traffic arrangements with steam roads. A 
system designed with reference to steam road conditions will 
undoubtedly have a far greater present and especially future 
value than where such conditions are neglected or ignored. 



OFFICE IXVESTIGATION. 33 

The cut on p. 34 represents part of a profile of a road and 
shows the elevations of various points as well as the grade 
line. Here the slopes Avere taken as 1-J to 1, that is, for each 
vertical height of 1 foot the horizontal distance will be 1-J 
feet. For two-track construction, the width of the subgrade 
should not be less than 26 feet. To determine approximately 
the volume of earth to be removed, proceed as follows : 

Measure the distance between the grade line and the line 
of the profile for a number of points, as at a, b, c, d, etc., in 
the profile, locating the successive points so that the slope of 
the ground between any two adjacent points will be approxi- 
mately uniform, or so that the surface of the ground between 
adjacent points will be approximately in the same plane and, 
if possible, approximately parallel to the proposed grade 
line. At each point so located if we pass a plane at right 
angles to the grade line, and assuming the side slopes as 
already given (1^ to 1), and the subgrade as 26 feet wide 
(for a double-track road), and further assuming that 
the surface of the ground is approximately level and 
parallel to the subbase, we have cut out by the plane 
above referred to a polygon with two of its sides approxi- 
mately parallel. Computing the volume of the solid between 
two of the adjacent polj^ons gives us the approximate quan- 
tity of excavation of embankment, as the grade line is below 
or above the surface of the ground, for each pair of planes. 
Where the ground is very uneven those sections or planes 
must be taken very close together. In cases where the plane 
of the profile deviates considerably from that of the grade 
line, the prismoidal formula must be used in determining the 
volumes of cut and fill. 

For the approximate conditions which we are now dis- 
cussing, the polygon referred to in the foregoing paragraph 
is usually taken as a trapezoid, of which one of the parallel 
sides is the proposed subbase of the road. Such approximate 
computations are generally based upon sections or planes 
taken 50 or 100 feet apart. For these approximations, where 
3 





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OFFICE INVESTIGATION. 35 

the section is that of a trapezoid, just referred to, a table or 
set of tables known as earthwork tables must usually be 
prepared for different side slopes and widths of bases, show- 
ing the total quantity of earth cut or fill per 50 feet or 100 
feet of length or distance betw^een parallel planes for each 
one foot or any given decimal part thereof, of increase in 
the height or length of the line adjoining the two parallel 
sides of the trapezoid and perpendicular thereto. Such tables 
are also to be found in any of the numerous civil engineering 
handbooks, and at times, occasionally, in works on civil en- 
gineering. If it be found that the data used in compiling 
any of the tables of the handbook, are the same as that for 
any special case under consideration, there will, of course, 
be no need for compiling a table. I have not often found 
such printed tables applicable. 

Each of these quantities is written on the profile and at the 
same time indicated, as rock or earth cut, etc., from the data 
taken by the preliminary field parties. At some convenient 
place on the profile are grouped, under the heads of Earth 
Cut, Rock Cut, and Embankment, the respective quantities 
of each class of w^ork. It should be noted that in fixing grade 
lines, it is often very essential not only that the cuts and fills 
be approximately equal, especially in Avork in and around 
towns and cities where earth for filling purposes has a value, 
but that the cuts and fills should be so located as to enable 
the product of the cuts to be used for embankments without 
too much unnecessary expense in transportation. 

Earthwork contracts generally provide that the earth or 
other material taken from excavation shall be hauled or trans- 
ported a given distance (from 1,000 to 3,000 feet) without 
extra charge. Earth and rockwork contracts are generally 
let on the basis of the cubic yard. 

The foregoing method of computation is of course an ap- 
proximation. The results will always be on the safe side if 
reasonable care be used and the distance between parallel 
planes be properly taken. This will certainly be done if the 



36 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

estimates be made by and under the direction of the chief 
of the preliminary surveying parties or the transitman or 
leveler of the field corps, each of whom has impressed upon 
his mind the characteristics of the surface of the country 
through which the line has been located. 

The ultimate or final earthwork determinations are matters 
of much importance and detail and require careful and ex- 
perienced work and computations. 

The profile should be divided into sections, of two miles or 
more in length, and the data relating to quantities, costs, etc., 
for each section shown on the section. 

The cost of grade crossings and culverts is now taken up for 
each section from the number of such crossings and culverts 
taken on the preliminary surveys, and the more detailed cost 
of the enterprise to subgrade then determined. The determi- 
nation of the costs of the rails, etc., ties, and ballast is only 
a matter of simple multiplication and addition. 

Careful attention should also be paid to all vertical curves, 
by which are meant the curves connecting the consecutive 
grade lines. In the case of train operation this is an im- 
portant detail, especially where two descending grades meet, 
for the reason that at the lowest point the rear cars may be 
pushing or crowding upon the cars which have passed the 
lowest point, and thereby, in cases of too sudden changes of 
direction, cause disastrous results. 

For vertical curves, the elevations may be determined by 
taking the sum of the intersection gradients and dividing by 
two for the ordinate of correction of the grade line or grade 
curve from the point of intersection or apex of the two grade 
lines, and then taking one-fourth of this quotient as the or- 
dinate of correction for the next station, in both directions 
from the intersection, and so on. Thus, with two grade lines, 
of which one was 1.25 per cent, and the other 1.00 net, we 
should have 

1.25 — 1.00 . , . , 
— = 1.12 = ordinate at the apex of the vertical 

curve from the point of intersection of the grade lines; 



OFFICE INVESTIGATION, 37 

1.12 



z= .28 = ordinate of correction for first station (100 
* feet distance) on each side of the intersection of grade 
lines ; 

28 • • 

^ =^ .07 = ordinate of correction for the next two sta- 
tions of 100 feet each from intersection of grade lines. 
This process can be followed until the vertical curves 
merge into the grade lines. 



CHAPTER V. 

PRELIMINARY DETERMINATION OF SCHEDULES AND 

EQUIPMENT. 

We now come to the determination of the equipment, 
such as number of cars, size and disposition of power sta- 
tions, feeder conductors, etc. The determination of the 
rolling stock, or cars, is the first step, and what is wanted 
is the maximum number of cars required to properly do the 
estimated maximum business. The number of people to be 
moved in one direction in one hour generally determines the 
capacity of the road. 

On his preliminary investigation or reconnaissance, the 
engineer has noted the occupations, character, and habits 
of the people of the different population centers. He has 
also noted the existing community of interest between the 
respective cities, towns, villages, etc., as well as the rela- 
tions and approximate travel between each of the centers 
of populations and the terminus or termini. He has ascer- 
tained the time intervals as well as the am^ount of heavi- 
est traffic. The rolling stock is usually determined by the 
business accruing during a few hours of the morning and a 
few hours of the evening. 

Let 
P z= number of people required to be carried. 
Q = time in hours during which business of P lasts. 
M = number of people one car will hold. 
S = schedule speed in miles per hour (including 15 or more 

seconds for each stop). 
H = headway in minutes. 
D = length of line in miles. 
N" = number of cars, if single cars be used, or train units, if 

more than one car be used. 
T = time in minutes occupied in running between the ter^ 

mini during one single trip. 

[38] 



SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 39 

Then 

P 

7-. = number of people to be carried per hour. 

P 

= number of cars required, which if single cars be 

Q^ used = K 

— — — = schedule speed in miles per hour = S. 

The formula connecting 'N, S, D and H is 
120 X D 

which by transposition is 

120 xD c, 120 xD 

H = or b = 

SxI^T HxN 

The foregoing, together with the knowledge of the prob- 
able amount of the heaviest business, will give at once the 
number of cars or train units by assuming the schedule 
speed, and headway, or if the number of train units be fixed 
in advance, by assuming the schedule speed, the required 
headway is at once shown. 

We now have the number of cars or train units which is 
required to do the estimated maximum business, together with 
the minimum headway. The next step is to determine the 
time-table. This is necessary in order to arrive at a conclusion 
as to the capacity of the power-house, substations, and 
transmission system. The best way to do this is to do it 
graphically, as sho^vn in the diagram on the next page, which 
was prepared to show the schedule of the l^ew York &; Port 
Chester Railroad. The original sheet, of which this diagram 
is a reproduction, is 60 inches long and 30 inches wide. The 
sheet is simply a properly selected co-ordinate paper, mounted 
on cloth to protect it by preventing it from being torn, ruled 
horizontally and vertically. The paper used for this work 
was millimetre paper. The vertical lines are one millimetre 
approximately 1/25 of an inch apart, and every sixtieth 
vertical line is a heavy line. The fine lines of the horizontal 



SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 41 

axis represent minutes and the heavy lines the hours. The 
vertical axis is a representation of the stations of the com- 
bined express and local schedules. Each station or stop is 
represented on the vertical scale at its proper distance, to 
scale, from the termini which are the first and last stations 
sho^^TL on the vertical scale. 

Commencing now at midnight and at the southern ter- 
minus, a straight line is drawn from the zero or midnight 
at such an angle Avith the axis of abscissae as to intersect the 
line draAvn through the northern terminus (Port Chester) 
31 of the small divisions farther to the right (for the express 
service), as the express schedule is 31 minutes. Each 
of the other express runs, in the same direction, is repre- 
sented by a line parallel to the first line, but each started 
at its proper time on the axis of abscissae. The express runs 
from the northern terminus are likewise represented by 
lines drawn from the northern terminus and sloping to the 
right. The same process is pursued for the local runs, not- 
ing, however, that the time is 49 minuteis for the lo- 
cal trains. The express runs are represented by red lines 
and the local runs by blue lines for convenience in distin- 
guishing them. 

The express stations on the axis of ordinates are shown 
in red and the local in blue. These red and blue lines are 
drawn through the stations, parallel to the time axis or 
abscissae, to readily show the time at which any train leav- 
ing either terminus, on any of the runs indicated by the 
sloping lines I have just explained, will pass the stations, 
which time is shown by the intersection of the line through 
the station with the run lines. To make this chart abso- 
lutely correct, the local and express run lines should each 
show at each station a small break, equal to the allowed 
time interval of each stop, that is, 15 seconds. This 
detail is shown in the final charts. In addition to this chart, 
showing the combined local and express runs, separate 
charts are prepared showing separately the local and ex- 
press services for convenience. The chart of the total ser- 



42 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

vice is necessary to determine the total load curve of the 
main power station, which wiD. be taken up later. 

If the road is a single-track line this form of time-table 
will immediately show the proper location of the turnouts. 
For instance, the cut on p. 43 shows a time-table ■ for a 
single-track railway. The express runs are shown by the 
double lines and are two hours apart. The local runs are 
indicated by the single lines, and turnouts must be pro- 
vided at the points where these lines cross. As a matter 
of fact, the time-table, w^hich was prepared by Mr: Ernest Gon- 
zenbach for a single-track electric railway, really shows three 
classes of possible service, viz.: (1) The express service, 
which takes 1 hour and 50 minutes to run the 62 miles be- 
tween D and F; (2) A mixed local and express service which 
can make the run in 2 hours and 25 minutes, and (3) a lo- 
cal service stopping at all stations and requiring 3 hours 
for the run. Class (2) can be made up by running 2 or 
more cars on the express (or double) line to the point E and 
running 1 or more of them as an accommodation car or 
train from that point. 

Another instance of the use of such graphical time-table 
is shown on p. 45. It wdll be noted that this cut shows 
some of the details of the electrical distribution systems. 
The instances given of this method of representing time- 
tables as shown on p. 40, together with the two foregoing 
illustrations are sufficient to indicate the value of this means 
of determining the details of time-tables, distributions sys- 
tems, etc. 

The cut on p. 44 illustrates an extension of the foregoing 
method. This diagram shows a comparison of trains running, 
the comparison being made between the train services of the 
'New York & Port Chester Eailroad, express and local and 
total train services, with the train service of its competitor, 
the 'Ne^Y York, New Haven & Hartford Eailroad Company. 

At this stage we are chiefly concerned to learn the 
maximum load which will be on the main power station. 
We can either determine this quite accurately by determin- 



SCHEDULES A^D EQUIPMENT. 



43 



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[45] 



46 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

ing each individual load curve from such data or run curves 
as are shown in Plates I, 11^ etc. From such individual 
run sheets a total run sheet, that is a run sheet showing con- 
tinuously instantaneous values and variations of energy for 
the entire run between termini, can and in all exact Avork 
should be prepared. From such a total run sheet the maxi- 
mum energy or current consumption can readily be obtained 
by superimposing or graphically adding the energy or cur- 
rent curves at the time or times of maximum service. 

The preparation and study of such individual run sheets 
will be taken up in detail in Chapter XIII, on rolling stock 
and motors, but is referred to at this point because a prelim- 
inary approximation of the maximum current requirement is 
necessary at this stage of the investigation. On each of the 
cuts the horizontal axis represents time, while the vertical axis 
represents speed in miles per hour and energy consumption ex- 
pressed in kilowatts per car. At a convenient place, on each 
of these diagrams, it is usual to tabulate the data for the dif- 
ferent runs. The separate tentative runs are indicated by the 
lines A, B, and C ; A and B being high-speed runs, and C 
a slow-speed run. 

The areas inclosed by the energy-time curves are sho^vn 
shaded, and where they are superimposed, the fact is indicated 
by a finer shading, as well as by grouping the characteristic 
letters, or A, B, C. Thus, the first part of each diagram, 
showing the part of the car and its acceleration from full 
stop to the particular maximum speed attained during the 
first acceleration, being common to all the curves, has the 
energy area finely shaded, and also marked with the let- 
ters A, B, C, corresponding to all the curves. When points 
are reached at which the acceleration for any of the three 
curves. A, B, C, is discontinued, which point is also the 
point at which the current is cut off from the electric motor, 
the fact is readily indicated by the difference in the shading, 
and the lettering of the shaded portion. 



SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 47 

In all the charts, the data given at the lower portion of 
the chart, in relation to curvature, grades, and fractional 
distances of the run, are those which correspond to the local 
train curve, C, in every case. 

We will now compare the results of these runs. Taking 
that on Plate I, for example, as showm, the time consumed 
for run A is 2 minutes and 5 seconds; the time consumed 
for run B is 2 minutes 6 seconds, and the time consumed 
for run C is 2 minutes 18 seconds. It will also be noticed 
that for run A the energy consumption expressed in w^att 
hours per ton mile is 144.2, while for run B it is 122, and 
for run C it is 89.4. In other w^ords, for a difference in 
time of only 13 seconds, as compared between run A and 
run C, over a distance of 1.448 miles, the difference in 
energy consumption per ton mile is 54.8 watt hours per 
ton mile. Assuming the line 25 miles long, which w^ould 
give 50 miles for a round trip, and assuming the w^eight of 
a loaded car for this service as 50 tons, the ton miles per 
round trip w^ould be 2,500; multiplying 2,500 by 54.8, 
which is the increased watt hours per ton mile for a sched- 
ule 13 seconds faster, we w^ould have an increase of 137,000 
w^att hours per round trip, or 137 kilowatts. A kilow^att 
hour at the main station switchboard would cost about 6 
mills. At the track it w^ould cost about 1 cent, assuming 
the very best conditions. At this rate the increased cost 
per round trip on the road W'e have been assuming would 
be $1.37. Assuming 150 round trips per day, w^hich w^ould 
be the approximate service on a high-class road in relatively 
densely populated territory, we w^ould have an increased 
cost of $215.50 per day due to the faster schedule, which 
for the total length of the line would not make a difference 
of 5 minutes in the running time per trip. 

This actual increase in the cost of energy due to the 
slight decrease in running time is not the only increased 
cost which would accrue. There would be in addition an 



48 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

increase in cost due to the necessity for larger conductors 
for the electrical transmission systems, as well as the prob- 
ably additional increased cost due to the necessity for the 
installation of additional storage battery capacity in the 
substation to take what would be an increased peak load in 
the case of the faster schedule. 

Attention is called to a few of these considerations, in 
order to show the value of a careful determination and most 
careful study of speed time curves and run sheets for each 
individual case, and the determination of the schedules 
therefrom. The engineer should guard against a mistake 
which has not infrequently been made, and which is that 
of specifying in advance, without making this detail study, 
that a schedule speed, including station stops, of a given 
number of miles per hour shall be made. A cautious en- 
gineer will never do this. Perhaps one reason why it has 
been done heretofore is the supposition that almost any- 
thing could be obtained from an electrically propelled rail- 
road system. This may be relatively true if the omnipotent 
commercial considerations are not allowed to enter. 

With the advent of heavy and highHspeed electric traction 
it has been found necessary to make a great number of such 
individual run sheets for different cases for the purpose of 
determining the energy consumption in watt hours per ton 
mile for different schedules and conditions. The rea- 
son for this was that there were no reliable data in exist- 
ence upon which any estimate could be based. A great 
number of these run sheets have now been completed for 
different cases, and where they have been carefully done 
it has been found that the actual operating results coincide, 
within a very few per cent., with the theoretical considera- 
tions deduced from the run sheets. 

The determination of the load diagram, by the use of total 
run sheets as just outlined, is a long and laborious task, 
and cannot be taken up in detail in this book. The follow- 



SCHEDULES AXD EQUIPMENT. 49 

ing, however^ is a method of approximation whicli can be 

followed : 

Let 

W = maximum weight of loaded car, or train unit, in tons, 

of 2,000 pounds each. 

D = length of road. 

T = time in minutes occupied in running between termini 

= one single trip. 

K = energy consumption in w^att hours per ton mile. 

N = number of cars or train units on the road during time 

of maximimi service of minimum headway. 

Then we have 

W X D = ton mile per trip = P. 

PxK .... 

= energy per tnp in kilowatt hours. 

PXK 60 ^ , . ^ 

—7—- X "Tp =mean rate oi energy input per car or tram 

unit. 

P X K^ 60 ^^ . ^ ^ , 

^^ ^ -7p X IN = A = total maximum average energy re- 
quired at the car motors for maxi- 
mum service condition. 

If to the foregoing 25 per cent, be added for transmission 
losses and heat and light, we have : 

roxPxKxNxlOO ^^^PxKxN 

lUUOxTx .75 ^^-^^ T maximum average 

demand = P. 

To P must be added the fluctuations, which will vary 
from .2R to .33P, as the number of train units in regular 
service are great and the average load consequently relatively 
high, or as the number of train units in regular service are 
few and far apart, and the consequent relative increase of 
the load during certain hours relatively great. 

In the foregoing, the quantity K is the important, in fact 
the crucial, quantity. K will vary with the schedule and the 
location of and the distance betv/een and consequently the 
4 



50 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



number of stops or stations, as well as with the alignment and 
gradients. As this is of such importance, I have compiled in 
the accompanying Table III, data showing relations between 
schedule speed and energy consumption in watt hours per ton 
mile. These figures are based upon approximately straight 
and level roads. As the effects of grades upon energy con- 
sumption are, to a large extent, compensating, the data may be 
used with safety. The compensating effect above referred to 
is due to the fact that while a car going up-grade is consum- 
ing more energy, per contra a car going down-grade consumes 
much less or none, thereby equalizing the effect of or com- 
pensating for the gradients. 

We now have determined the maximum load to be provided 
for, and from this figure we determine the number and size 
of the main generating station prime movers, such as the 
turbines or reciprocating engines, and the accompanying di- 
rect-connected electric generators. 

Generally speaking, the fewer the machines the better, al- 
ways bearing in mind the necessity for the provision for such 
a number of units as will assure uninterrupted operation in 
the event of the disability of any single unit. 

TABLE III. 



DISTANCE BETWEEN 


Watt Hours per Ton Mile for Schedxjle Speeds of 














STOPS. 


40 Miles 


35 Miles 


30 Miles 


25 Miles 


20 Miles 


15 Miles 




per Hr. 


per Hr. 


per Hr. 


per Hr. 


per Hr. 


per Hr. 


Miles. 


Feet. 














3 


15,840 


110 


80 


78 


65 


53 


40 


m 


1.3,300 


121 


90 


83 


74 


54 


40 


2 


10,560 


142 


99 


86 


80 


60 


41 


^Vz 


7,920 




123 


95 


85 


68 


43 


1 


5,280 






128 


90 


74 


50 


Vz 


2,640 








145 


119 


56 


V4 


1,320 












120 



Train friction in pounds 
per ton 



35 


30 


27.5 


25 


20 



15 



The braking effort or retardation is taken at 150 pounds per ton. 
The stops are taken at 15 seconds each, except in the case of the 15- 
mile per hour schedule, where 10 seconds is taken. 



SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 



51 



The foregoing figures are for eases of approximately level and approxi- 
mately straight roads, 

J^'or a schedule of 40 miles per hour the speed attained will be between 
60 and 65 miles per hour. A schedule of 25 miles will require speeds of 
from 40 to 50 miles per hour, etc. 

The rate of acceleration for the long runs varies from 75 to 110 pounds 
per ton, going as high as 210 pounds per ton for short runs. 

The foregoing applies to single car units. If units of more than one 
car be used, the friction in pounds per ton will decrease and with it will 
also decrease the energy consumption in watt hours per ton mile. 

Some of the places have been left blank on account of the impracti- 
cability, with existing apparatus, of making some of the high schedules 
with the short distances between stops assumed in the table. 

The figures are for the energy required at the motors. 

Cost of Construction. 

The engineer is now prepared to make up at least tenta- 
tively his estimates of cost. To give definite figures which 
will apply in every case is of course impossible, as prices for 
nearly everything which enters into railway construction 
vary not only with the market but also with the territory in 
which the road is to be built. For instance, ties can be pur- 
chased in the South and in many parts of the West for 40 
per cent, of the 'New York price; the cost of ballasting de- 
pends largely and of bridging entirely on local conditions. 
iSTevertheless the writer has compiled Table IV as giving 
safe average figures for a double-track, high-speed inter- 
urban line, such as called for by modem practice. 



TABLE IV. 

Approximate Costs per Mile of Single Track. 



ITEMS. 



Maximum. 



Minimum. 



Rails, 80 lb. T. ($33 per ton delivered, including 

splice plates, bolts, spikes, and drilling 

Cost of labor for handUng and laying 

Track bonding .• 

Ties, 6x8x8, white oak, at 70 cents each 

Rock ballast, 10 inches deep, 11 feet wide, and 
carried to top of tie 

Graduation 



$5,100 00 

900 00 

750 00 

1,848 00 

(2-foot-centers.) 

4.125 00 

(Crushed stone, 

$1.50 per yard.) 

6,000 00 

(20,000 cubic yds. 

per mi. of track.) 



$4,460 OO 

900 00 

400 00 

1,474 00 

(30-in. centers.) 

2,062 50 
(Crushed stone, 
75 cts. per yard. ) 

1,800 00 
(10,000 cubic yds. 
per mi. of track.) 



52 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 
TABLE IV — Continued. 



ITEMS. 


Maximum. 


Minimum. 


Third rail 


$7,000 00 

2,500 00 

12,000 00 

400 00 

8.000 00 
(At five minute 
headway.) 

18,000 00 

4,000 00 
20,000 00 


$3,400 00 


Copper or other electrical conductors, and in- 
stallation thereof 


1,500 00 


Bi'idges and culverts 


4.000 00 


Labor and incidentals 


200 00 


Equipment. 

Rolling stock, motors and equipment, from 
$10,000 to $5,000 per car 


1.000 00 


Power-stations at $100 perkw.; substations at 
$40 per kw , etc 


(At one hour head- 
way.) 

4,000 00 


Incidentals, including block-signal system, 

telephone and telegraph, fencing, etc 

Real estate for right of way 


1,000 00 
1,600 00 








$90,623 00 


$27,7% 50 



In the foregoing table are shown the approximate maxi- 
mum and minimum costs per mile of road. The maximum 
costs above given will prevail in and around large cities, such 
as 'New York, Boston, London, and Paris, where such items 
as cartage, storage, labor, etc., are relatively high. Terminals 
are not included. 

The cost of bridges and culverts is probably the most in- 
determinate item in the above list. As already indicated, it 
is assumed that the road is built upon a private right of way, 
and that grade-crossings are eliminated. 

The estimates for construction are based upon mate- 
rial and workmanship, upon which the subsequent mainte- 
nance will be a minimum. 

The estimates of Table TV for the bridges and culverts 
are all based upon concrete-steel structures. These struc- 
tures, when once erected, require practically no further at- 
tention, as they are simply monoliths. Their cost is no 
greater than that of the best class of steel construction. 
The average cost of one of these structures for four tracks, 
having a clear width or span of about 60 feet, and a clear 
height from the top of the street to the center of the under- 



SCHEDULES AXD EQUIPMENT. 53 

side of the structure, of about 16 feet, is about $9,000 where 
no piling is necessary and where a foundation can be obtained 
by excavating to a depth of not more than 5 or 6 feet. A two- 
track structure is worth about 35 per cent. less. 

If the item of bridges and culverts be eliminated from 
the total, and the sum of the figures set opposite the remain- 
ing items be taken as the totals, the maximum and minimum 
for any given special case can very readily be determined, by 
roughly estimating the number of grade-crossings per mile, 
and adding it to the above total. 




TYPICAL WAITII^G STATIC]^ LACKAWAI^NA & WYOMING 

VALLEY RAILWAY. 

The maxima of the foregoing estimates are based upon 
the highest-class construction, and an operation providing 
for headway of 5 and 10 minutes between the train units 
during the morning and evening commercial hours on roads 
having not over 100 miles of single track. The headway 
throughout the day is about 20 minutes for the maximum 
estimates. 

The minimum estimates will allow headways of half an 



54 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

hour or more throughout the larger portion of the day, with 
headways of probably 10 and 15 minutes during the morn- 
ing and evening hours. 

The character and amount of the equipment will be de- 
termined entirely by the size, character, business and habits 
of the population tributary to the line of the road. This 
matter will be taken up later. 

The cost of real estate for right of way and terminals, and 
other purposes, will vary from $100 per acre to $8,000 or 
$9,000 per acre, or more. This item will also have to be 
determined separately for each case, and it is simply given 
in the foregoing table to show the difference between the 
maximum and minimum costs as such costs now exist. 

The following is an actual table of costs of an interurban 
railway, taken from an article by Mr. Ernest Gonzenbach 
in the Street Railivay Journal of April 4, 1903. The road 
from end to end is 62.5 miles long, but counting the mileage 
of sidings and yard-tracks it has a single-track mileage of 
66 miles. 

TABLE V. 
Cost of Interurban Electric Railway 62.5 Miles Long. 

Excavation and embankment $96,000 

Bridges, abutments, and culverts 91,050 

Two overhead railroad crossings, at $32,000 64,000 

Ties, 2,640 per mile, at 55 cts 96,250 

Ballast, 2,200 cubic yds. per mile, at 80 cts 116,000 

Rail, 70 pounds per yard, at $31 per ton delivered 225,000 

Joints, spikes, and bolts for 60-feet rails 29,500 

Labor on track, 56 miles, at $600 per mile 33,600 

Labor on street track, 6.5 miles at $1,800 per mile 11,700 

Farm and highway crossings 9,500 

Wire fences, 24,000 rods, at 73 cts. in place 17,500 

Switches, special work, etc , 21,000 

Bonds, 24,000, at 61 cts. in place 14,650 

Cross-bonds and special bonding at switches, etc 2,000 

Third-rail, 70 pounds per yard, 56 miles, at $36 per ton de- 
livered 131,000 

Insulators, spikes, and bolts, at 62 cts. in place 18,000 



SCHEDULES AND EQUIPMENT. 55 

Joint-plates, bolts, and labor laying rail $9,800 

Bonds, 15,000, at 73 cts. in place 10,950 

Crossings and crossing-cables 13,500 

Trolley in streets, single-track span construction 24,000 

Power station, 1500 kw. at $120 per kilowatt 180,000 

Power station building, $11 per kilowatt 16,500 

Transmission line, 55 miles, at $1,400 77,000 

Substation freight and depot buildings 24,500 

Substation railway apparatus 65,000 

Batteries 80,000 

Telephone line 9,000 

Block-signal system 35,000 

Stations and platforms 5,250 

Switch and platform-lighting circuit 4,000 

General office building 8,000 

Car shops, shop tools, etc 24,000 

Car bodies and locomotive body 49,000 

Trucks and air-brakes 27,500 

Electrical car equipment 76,000 

Lighting and power apparatus and supply systems 70,000 

Accidents, contingencies, and insurance 5 per cent 89,000 

Administration, superintendence, office expenses, engineering, 

etc., 5 i>er cent 89,000 



$1,963,750 



The figures above do not include any allowance for right 
of way, franchises, and legal expenses, nor for interest 
during construction. It represents the construction cost 
purely, which in this case amounts to $29,750 per mile of 
single track. 



CHAPTEE VI. 

ESTIMATE OF EARISTINGS. 

We will now make a detailed estimate and statement of 
the probable income or revenue of our proposed road. This 
detail should show: 

1. Estimate and money value of probable passenger busi- 
ness between each of the centers of population and the prin- 
cipal terminus or termini, if both be important places. 

2. Estimate and money value of probable passenger busi- 
ness between each of the centers of population between the 
termini and each of the remainder of such centers of popu- 
lation. 

3. Estimate and money value of the probable annual ex- 
cursion or recreation passenger business. 

4. Estimate and money value of the probable express 
and freight business. 

5. Rates of fare which are proposed to be charged. 
Should an existing road or roads be occupying the terri- 
tory proposed to be served, the relation between existing 
rates of fare and the proposed rates isi of course an impor- 
tant factor in this latter consideration. 

As a matter of fact, instances of totally unoccupied ter- 
ritory are very rare. Trolley roads are almost certain to be 
in operation and generally, in instances of most promise, 
steam roads will be found serving the territory after a 
fashion. 

A knowledge of the business of the existing railroads op- 
erating in the proposed territory is generally of value and 
should be ascertained. 

For steam roads this can be readily done by purchasing 

one ticket, at each station within the territory to be served, 

to every other station on a certain day of the month, and 

then repeating the purchases at given intervals, say ten days 

[56] 



ESTIMATE OF EARNINGS. 57 

apart for some months. As each ticket has a serial number 
the existing local and through passenger business for any 
territory can be readily determined by noting the serial 
numbers and subtracting the numbers on those first pur- 
chased from those last purchased. This method will also 
show the variations of the passenger traffic. 

The business of the surface trolley roads can be deter- 
mined by stationing men at predetermined important places 
along the routes and noting the car number, time of day 
and number of passengers on each car as it passes a given 
point. For this work some experience is necessary to esti- 
mate the number of passengers on the car as it passes the 
observer. It is remarkable how accurate a little experience 
and care will make such observations. The difference in 
the number of passengers on a car as shown by the observa- 
tions of the consecutive observers will show, approximately, 
the amount of local business or business between centers of 
population. Thesei observations will also 'show, approxi- 
mately, the total trolley passenger business for the territory 
and will provide data from and for the actual case in hand, 
from which can be determined the rides per capita for the 
territory as a whole as well as the rides per capita between 
the different centers of population. It is needless to say 
that the detailed data above noted will not be supplied by 
the existing operating railroads, whence the necessity for 
the relatively large expenditure of the time and money to 
secure them. Should the proposed railroad be one of great 
magnitude which will involve the expenditure of large sums 
for its installation, it is best to extend the observations over 
both the summer and winter months, as by so doing a more 
reliable average will be obtained. 

Having now the actual passenger traffic business between 
each of the towns and the termini, as well as the local 
traffic between each of the towns, an estimate is made of 
the probable increase of traffic due to the increased facili- 
ties. Valuable statistical data relating to such increase 



58 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

will be found among the list of references given in Ap- 
pendix II. Upon three branches of the New York, New 
Haven & Hartford railroad which were changed from steam 
to electric systems the following results were obtained: 

Comparison of Passengers Carried Per Annum njmn Changing from 
Steam to Electric Operation. 

Passengers carried per annum operating by 
NA.ME OF ROAD. Steam Electric 

Nantasket Branch 304,292 702,419 

Highland Division 387,695 l,06o'617 

New Canaan Branch 98,302 184,728 



The systems cited above w^ere, at the time these results were 
obtained, operating hourly and half-hourly schedules. The 
difference would undoubtedly be much greater with shorter 
headways ; these figures, however, show nearly 100 per cent, 
increase as a minimum and about 270 per cent, increase as 
a maximum. 

An estimate should now be made of the passenger traffic 
which \^dll come to the new road. Let there be seven 
towns, as A, B, C, D, E, F, and G, including the termini. 
Determine upon the average fares between each place, and let 
A', B', C, D', E', F', and G', be the respective populations 
of which A is the main or principal terminus. Let the es- 
timated rides per capita from G to A equal E^ rides per 
annum, and the rate of fare between A and G equal R, then 
G' X ]N^ X R = S, which is the revenue which will accrue on 
account of the community of interest between G, the minor 
terminus, and A, the principal terminus. Proceeding in this 
manner for each town or population center, we obtain the 
total estimated revenue. As a concrete instance will be 
more impressive, attention is directed to Tables YI and YII 
showing computations of this kind, which the writer worked 
out for the 'New York & Port Chester Railroad. 

Table YI is computed from data upon the earnings per 
capita taken from interurban statistics, Avhich data were, 



ESTIMATE OF EARNINGS. 



59 



however, not used until the existing railway earnings per 
capita for the case in hand had been determined by ascer- 
taining the existing business. The railroad earnings of 
places relatively remote from a large city are generally 
greater per capita for interurban roads than tho'se of the 
nearer places. 

TABLE VI. 
Estimates of Earnings on Population Basis. 



BETWEEN. 



Port Chester and New York 

Harrison, Rye and New York, 

Mamaroneck and New York 

New Rochelle, Larehmont and New York 

New Rochelle and Port Chester 

Mt. Vernon, Pelham and New York 

New Rochelle and Mt. Vernon 

Mt. Vernon and Port Chester 

Bronx and Mt. Vernon 

Annual summer and I'ecreation business of 
the road 



Population 

Carried per 

Year. 



7,000x120 

2,000X120 

5.000x120 

20,000X150 

30. 000 X 60 

28.000x150 

85, 000 X 30 

62, 000 X 20 

100,000X 50 

1,500,000 



Total passenger income per year 



Average 

Fare per 

Trip. 



15 cents 
15 cents 
12 cents 
10 cents 

5 cents 

6 cents 
5 cents 

7 cents 
5 cents 

15 cents 



Annual 
Income. 



$126,000 
36,000 
72,000 

300.000 
90.000 

252,000 
52,500 
86,800 

250,000 

225,000 



$1,490,300 



The estimates of the earnings were made after a careful 
study of existing conditions in the territory to be served 
by the isew York & Port Chester Railroad. These investi- 
gations extended over many months and had for their 
objects: 

1. A careful study, after personal observation, of the 
habits of the people along the line; that is, ascertaining 
how, when, and where they traveled. 

2. The existing inducements which would cause people 
to travel between the various cities and towns. 

3. Ascertaining the occupations of the people and the 
probable stability of their employment. 

4. Examination of the national censuses, as well as of 
the various ward, precinct, and school censuses. 

5. Personal observations at the various points at which 



eo 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



the public boarded trolley cars, at all hours of the day and 
night for many months, to count and ascertain the amount 
and division of the existing travel. 

A careful study of the business of the existing trolley 
and elevated roads in the district was made, as well as of 
the nearest existing approximations now obtaining elsewhere, 
and all data thus derived were plotted, and therefrom the 
deductions herein shown were drawn. 

It was found that this estimate contemplates carrying the 
population served approximately one hundred (100) times 
per year. The business will include 18,000,00 fares per an- 
num. As these 18,000,000 fares are based upon approximately 
4,500,000 car miles, it will be seen that there must be 
carried but four passengers per car mile; 18,000,000 divided 
by 365 = 49,300 passengers per day of 398 trips, or an aver- 
age of 124 passengers per complete trip of about 22 miles. 
There are 22 local stations and 12 express stations, which 
would give, on an average, 6 passengers per station per trip 
for the local service, and 10* passengers per station per trip 
for the express service. 

TABLE VII. 

Estimates of Earnings on Per Capita Basis by Dividing Territory Into 

Zones. 



BETWEEN. 


Popu- 
lation. 


Earnings 
per Capita. 


Total. 


Port Chester and New York 


8,000 

2,000 

5,000 

20,000 

30,000 

30,000 

45,000 

80,000 

100,000 


$15 00 

15 00 

15 00 

12 00 

10 00 

3 00 

3 00 

1 50 

3 00 


$120,000 


Harrison, Rye and New York 


30,000 


Mamaroneck and New York 


75,000 


New Rochelle, Larchmont and New York 


240,000 


Mt Vernon Pelham and New York 


300,000 


New Rochelle and Port Chester 


90,000 


New Rochelle and Mt Vernon 


135,000 


Mt Vernon and Port Chester 


120,000 


Port Chester, Bronx and Mt. Vernon 


300,000 








$1,410,000 



Table YII was compiled upon the zone system and for 
the purposes of checking the results given in Table YI. 
Both methods can be used and should be in all cases of 



ESTIMATE OF EARNIXG8. 61 

this kind where a careful study of the question of probable 
traffic is important. The figures obtained differ slightly 
from those reached on the population basis but approximate 
so closely as to afford a satisfactory check. 

In arriving at the probable earnings per capita, per annum, 
in Table VII, a careful study was made of the average railway 
fare expenditures per capita as they now exist in this terri- 
tory, that is, the approximate amount of money paid to the ex- 
isting steam and trolley roads by the residents of the different 
zones into which the district was divided for this purpose. 
In following out this method the intersection of One Hun- 
dred and Thirty-second street and Willis avenue was taken 
as the center, and circles with One Hundred and Thirty-sec- 
ond street and Willis avenue as a center, were drawn, the 
radius of each circle being one mile greater than the other. 
In this way 25 circles were obtained. Had the circles simply 
been carried to the State line, but 23 would have been 
obtained. Inasmuch, however, as there is quite an extensive 
population immediately beyond Port Chester in Connecticut, 
all of which will have easy access to this road by using the 
existing trolley roads for a short distance, the Connecticut 
population was taken into account for a distance of three 
miles from what would be the end of this road. The popula- 
tion for one-half of a mile on each side of this railroad 
was obtained for each of the zones, that is, the distance be- 
tween any two consecutive circles, and the riding data of this 
population determined. For the purpose of arriving at this 
information, a careful count during the summer and winter 
was made for a period extending over six months, of the 
number of passengers on the trolley cars at different points 
in this territory, as well as the number of people using the 
steam road at each of the stations in the territory under 
consideration. This information was obtained in the way 
already described in the first part of this chapter. 

When it had been obtained, a series of curves were plot- 
ted, showing the relations between receipts per capita and 



62 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



population served for different periods, and localities or 
zones. From the curves so determined, the figures for the 
receipts per capita given in this statement were summar- 
ized. Of course the estimated earnings per capita given 
in this summary are less than the results actually obtained, 
as the figures given are those estimated for the 'New York 
&; Port Chester Railroad portion of the business only. 



TABLE VIII. 

Statistics of Large City Properties. 



Interurban Street Railway Co., New York 
Philadelphia R. T. Co., Philadelphia, Pa. . 

Brooklyn R. T. Co., Brooklyn, N. Y 

Boston Elevated Ry. Co , Boston, Mass. . . 

Pittsburg Railways Co., Pittsburg, Pa 

Chicago Union Traction Co., Chicago, 111.. 

St. Louis Transit and Suburban Co's 

Chicago City Railway Co., Chicago, 111 

United Railways of San Francisco, San 

Francisco, Cal 

Unite:l Rys. & Electric Co., Baltimore, Md. 

International Ry. Co., Buffalo, N. Y 

Twin City R. T. Co., Minneapolis, Minn... . 

Detroit United Railway, Detroit, Mich 

Cincinnati Traction Co., Cincinnati, O 

Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light Co., 

Milwaukee, Wis 



M 




u 


a 
o 


B 


'■§ 


<4-l 


c8 


o 





w 


ft 


4) 


o 


r^ 


Ph 


S 




403 


2,050,600 


475 


1,293,697 


523 


1,166,582 


387 


744,062 


401 


a750,000 


303 


1,698,575 


455 


a750,000 


219 


1,698,575 


244 


a375,000 


354 


508,957 


353 


a500,000 


255 


366,350 


380 


b303,120 


210 


325,902 


146 


285,315 



ipts. 


to 

•t! O 




grS'^ 


4) 




P^ 


P^gcS 


CO 




g 


8ft 


^ 


C5 


$20,634,548 


$51,202 


14,006,915 


29,492 


12,510,622 


23,921 


11,060,385 


28.58:1 


8,276,565 


20,640 


7,825,120 


25,825 


7,051,244 


15,497 


6,367,358 


29,075 


5,553,904 


22,762 


5,041,275 


14,241 


4,426,675 


12,540 


3,591,549 


14,084 


3,501,754 


9,215 


3,315,751 


15,789 


2,302,514 


15,770 



p?5 



$10 06 

10 98 

11 94 
14 88 
11 03 

8 35 

9 40 

8 35 

14 81 

9 90 

8 85 

9 80 
11 55 
10 17 

8 08 



a Local estimate of city and suburbs 1903. 



b Local estimate ICOl. 



The above Table VIII shows some of the results which 
now" obtain upon a number of systems operating in and about 
various large cities of the United States. They are all city 
systems, and with the exception of the Interurban Street 
Hallway Company, of New York, all trolley roads. In most 
cases the figures for traffic are for the fiscal year 1902, while 
the population, imless otherwise indicated, is for 1900. The 
population given is that of the city in which each company 
operates. The column of gross receipts gives the entire re- 



ESTIMATE OF EARNINGS. 63 

ceipts from passengers of the respective companies, including 
the receipts from branches extending outside of the city limits, 
so that the " gross receipts per capita " are in some cases 
slightly higher than they would be if they showed the receipts 
of the actual population served. The Brooklyn and Boston 
figures include the receipts from the elevated lines in those 
cities, as these systems in each case are operated in conjunc- 
tion with the surface systems, and their receipts cannot be 
separated. Where there are two or more companies in the 
same city, the " gross receipts per capita " show the gross 
receipts of all of the surface street railways in the city. 

In cases where there are no existing steam railroads serv- 
ing the population to be connected by the electric railway, 
it is advisable to count the traffic by vehicles and stages 
between the different centers of population for periods suffi- 
ciently long and at proper intervals to give a fair annual 
average. From this information and by comparisons mth 
the traffic of existing roads in similar conditions a fairly sat- 
isfactory estimate can be secured. In such comparisons 
the ^^ population served" may very properly be considered 
to be that residing within about li miles on each side of the 
proposed line, in cases, of course, w^here there is no other rail- 
way serving them. The entire population of large terminal 
cities, as has been already said, should not be added to the 
total sought, as all the residents of such city will not be 
probable patrons of the railway. In making per capita com-- 
parisons of this kind between a proposed and an existing 
railway, it is often better, where both have a large terminal 
city, to leave this city out of account in both instances. 
An even better plan, where the riding between stations on 
the operating road is known, is to make the comparison on 
the zone system, as already described. 

Thus far the method which should be followed in deter- 
mining the probable gross passenger earnings only of any 
interurban system has been described. The matter of deter- 
mining the gross passenger earnings has been gone into some- 



64 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

what in detail^ for the reason that npon roads of this char- 
acter the passenger earnings at present are by far the greater 
portion of the total gross earnings. 

In addition to passenger earnings, however, estimates 
should be made of the probable gross revenue which will be 
derived from the carrying, of freight, express, and mail. 
The data now available on this subject are not very complete 
on account of the fact that this branch of the interurban 
business has not yet been developed and systematized suffi- 
ciently to be able to furnish accurate data. For any special 
case, however, the gross freight and express business can be 
worked out and determined by a process very similar to 
that used in determining the gross passenger revenue. The 
process consists, first, in ascertaining the amount of freight 
and express business coming into and going out by railroad 
of each of the centers of population (in cases where an ex- 
isting steam road is doing this business), and then determin- 
ing what proportion could be secured by the electric road. 
Should there be no existing steam railroad, the method of 
procedure would be to ascertain the total production and 
consumption of the territory proposed to be served, which 
would include, of course, products of all kinds, that is, agri- 
cultural products and manufacturing products. An esti- 
mate of the gross tonnage from every point along the line 
of the proposed road can then be made to the points at which 
the freight would probably be carried, such as some large 
city or some other connecting road. 

In estimating freight traffic for towns where there is no 
existing road supplying the population, and, consequently, 
where no actual approximate railroad data can be obtained 
for the probable ingoing and outgoing freight receipts of 
any single or number of population centers, another way to 
proceed is to ascertain the population of each of the popula- 
tion centers, and then have recourse to statistical data pub- 
lished by the United States and other governments, showing 
consumption and production per capita for given localities. 



ESTIMATE OF EARXiyGS. 65 

From, such data, an estimate can be made of the probable 
railroad tonnage for the proposed road. Such an estimate 
will, of course, show the tonnage which would accrue on 
account of a service, such as is now in existence around the 
country, that is, the ordinary steam railroad service. There 
is no doubt, however, but that the actual tonnage for an 
electric service operating frequent units would be greater 
than that enjoyed by existing steam roads. Instances often 
exist also where freight and goods are taken out and into a 
community by means of wagons plying to and from railroad 
centers distant anywhere from 5 to 10 miles from the com- 
munity. Where such cases exist fairly accurate data can be 
obtained by ascertaining the business which is done by such 
wagon service. 

The freight and express traffic of existing interurban elec- 
tric roads has been shown by the experience of the interur- 
ban lines in Ohio, Michigan, and elsewhere, to be a profitable 
portion of their business and one which bids fair to develop 
enormously. It is difficult yet to obtain any satisfactory 
figures as to just what this business will amount to, but from 
the information available from the roads investigated, a fair 
present average on a good road shows that it is now from 
$500 to $1,000 per annum per mile of single track, depend- 
ing upon local conditions and the extent to which the freight 
and express business has^ been sought and developed. There 
is no doubt that the same reasons which have developed 
the- passenger business on electric lines, that is, short head- 
way, will be and is a large factor in developing the freight 
and express business. With steam railroads the object is to 
make every freight train unit a self-supporting or paying unit, 
which is also, as is well known, the process sought to be fol- 
lowed by steam roads in their passenger business. Steam rail- 
road operating economy now^ lies in the direction of long 
trains, or in other words, in long headways, and the tendency 
of modern steam railroad economy is toward building larger 
and heavier freight engines, and cutting down grades and elim- 
inating curves so as to reduce the cost of the '' ton-mile," etc. 
5 



66 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECOXOMICS. 



In the case of electric roads the unit at present is not the 
ton-mile, but the car-mile, and there is practically no econ- 
omy to be gained by running long trains. It has been demon- 
strated that passengers can be carried for far less per mile on 
interurban roads paralleling steam roads than the steam roads 
have been able to carry such passengers for. This condition 
is due to the fact that electric roads operate single cars or 
trains at frequent intervals for the reason already pointed 
out, and increase the " riding habit.'' The same law holds 
good in freight transportation. If the commercial interests 



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EXPRESS AND FREIGHT CAR OF THE SOUTHERN OHIO TRACTION 

COMPANY. 



of a community realized that they could replenish their 
stocks upon a day's notice, they would cease laying in supplies 
of goods of such quantity that would last them a week or 
ten days, or possibly two weeks, as is now the case, and 
through the saving thus secured in insurance, interest, ware- 
house handling, etc., could afford and would pay a higher 
rate to the electric road for the '^ express " handling of goods 



ESTIMATE OF EAR^UNGiS. 67 

than that now paid to steam railroad companies. In other 
words, a rapid and frequent train service, such as electric 
roads can give, will not only materially increase the freight 
and express business, but by eliminating the economically 
nonproductive conditions now existing between the producers 
and the consumers will develop a most important landmark 
in political economy. 

There is no doubt that such relatively high-speed, high- 
class interurban electric railroad systems as I have been and 
am essentially considering in this book, and which are to 
play an important part in transportation economics, will soon 
attain gross passenger earnings of from $12,000 to $15,000 
per mile of single track per year and more, and will also 
attain additional earnings from freight, express, and mail 
business of from $2,000 to $3,000 per mile of single track 
per year. I refer especially to roads operating at schedule 
speeds of from 30 to 40 miles per hour and more, on private 
rights of way, connecting large centers of population and hav- 
ing stations or stops from a quarter of a mile to a mile or 
more apart, running cars at frequent headway, and when 
designed and installed by competent railway experts, fitted 
by experience to judge of the present and future economic 
activities of given conditions, and with special reference to 
the economic considerations set forth in Chapter XYIII. 
Already some of the better classes of electric interurban roads 
are obtaining $10,000 to $12,000 per mile of single track 
per year from passengers, and $1,000 to $1,200 per mile 
of single track per year from freight and express, and this 
in cases where the whole or the major part of the tracks are 
on public highways, and where, consequently, the schedules 
are limited to 16 or 20 miles per hour, which, as I have shown 
elsewhere in this book, is a perpetual handicap to interurban 
high-speed railroads so designed and installed. 



CHAPTER VII. 

ESTIMATE OF PROBABLE OPERATING EXPENSES. 

The next step is the determination of the costs of operation 
and maintenance, as well as the amount of the fixed charges. 

In connection with electric railroad operation, an nnfor- 
tunate hahit has developed of estimating the annual costs of 
operation and maintenance as a percentage of the gross re- 
ceipts. Estimates of this kind really mean nothing and have 
no real value even for comparisons. Thej are even danger- 
ous when used in such computations and determinations as 
discussed here, on account of the difference in conditions, such 
as number of cars operated, length of route, headway, average 
distance each passenger is carried, and tributary population 
per mile of track, and especially relative receipts, etc. 

In order to use the percentage of the gross receipts method 
in making comparisons, some of the details of operation 
should accompany the statement of the percentage of gross 
receipts required to operate the road. Such accompanying 
details should show : 

1. The gross receipts. 

2. The car mileage operated daily and yearly. 

3. The average daily mileage per car. 

4. The total number of miles of single track operated. 

5. The amounts annually expended for maintenance of 
way and structures, and maintenance of equipment, and the 
amounts per car mile for these items. 

6. The physical condition of the property. 

7. The capital liabilities and fixed charges. 

8. Traffic density or passengers carried per car mile. 

Of two roads having approximately the same amount of 
track, the one operating at the larger percentage of the gross 
receipts may have the larger net. Suppose one of two such 
roads to have gross receipts of $1,500,000, and to be operat- 
ing at 60 per cent, of its gross receipts. Suppose the second 

[68] 



ESTIMATE OF OPERATING EXPENSES. 69 

of the two to have gross receipts of $900,000, and to be operat- 
ing at 50 per cent, of its gross receipts. In the first case the 
net will be $600,000 while in the second case it will be but 
$450,000. If each has approximately the same amount of 
track, the fixed charges will probably be nearly the same. 
This instance will show the necessity for additional detail 
if such data are used. 

The only safe way to proceed is to determine the detail cost 
of each item entering into the total cost of operation. The 
subject is generally divided into four subdivisions, by exist- 
ing steam and some electric systems, as follows : 

1. Cost of maintenance of roadway and structures. 

2. Cost of maintenance of equipment. 

3. Cost of conducting transportation. 

4. General expense. 

Any item of operating costs can be classified under one of 
the four heads above given. I find it more satisfactory to 
use the following subdivision for electric systems: 

1. Cost of train crews. 

2. Cost of station men, such as ticket agents, etc. 

3. Maintenance and inspection of cars and equipment. 

4. Maintenance of roadway and structures. 

5. Cost of operating main power station, including fuel, 
oil, waste, etc., and labor and repairs. 

6. Cost of operating rotary stations. 

7. Salaries of officers and clerks, etc. 

Each factor of each of the foregoing items should be care- 
fully computed and the total cost of operation and mainte- 
nance thus ascertained. This is the only safe and true way 
of arriving at a proper conclusion. 

The fixed charges include the following items : 

1. Interest on bonds or other interest-carrying obligations. 

2. Cost of leaseholds or rentals. 

3. State and other taxes. 

Taxes are often placed under the head of operating ox- 
penses. 



70 ELECTRIC RAlL^yAY ECONOMICS, 

They are sometimes determined as a percentage (from 2 
to 5 per cent. ) of the gross receipts. 

For the reasons specified above, detail comparisons with 
similar conditions of existing roads, as with the question of 
gross receipts, offer the best method of determining the 
operating expenses. The reader is recommended to use in 
all cases the latest figures obtainable, as given in the reports 
of the several properties themselves or in financial annuals 
like ^^American Street Railway Investments," reports of the 
State Eailroad Commissioners of !N'ew York, Massachusetts, 
etc. 

The detailed estimate of the operating cost of a proposed 
electric raihvay, as recently prepared by the writer for a 96- 
mile line, can be made up somewhat as follows : 

Details of Opeeati:n^g Cost of a High-Speed Iis^tekukbak 

Electric Railway. 

Length, 96 miles of main single track (about 24 miles of 

roadway). 
124 local trains each way, trains of one car. 
Y4 express trains each way, trains of two cars. 
4,500,000 car miles per annum. 

A. Train crews $84,080 89 

B. Station men 80,300 00 

C. Maintenance and inspection of cars and 

equipment 90,000 00 

T). Maintenance of roadway and structures. .. 96,000 00 

E. Cost of power 253,116 55 

F. Rotary stations 16,425 00 

G. Salaries of officers 50,000 00 



$669,922 44 



ESTIMATE OF OPERATING EXPENSES. 71 

A. Train Crews. 

124 local trains each way per day ; single trip time, 49 min- 
utes. 
74 express trains each Avay per day; single trip time, 31 
minutes. 
124 X 2 X 49 -^ 60 = 202.5 car hours per day of 24 hours for 
local service. Local service to consist of one car hav- 
ing a crew of :• 

1 motorman at $3 per day of 10 hours ; 
1 conductor at $2.50 per day of 10 hours; 

Total, $5.50 per day of 10 hours; or $0.55 per 
car hour. 
202.5 X $0.55x365 = $40,751,875, cost of local train ser- 
vice per year. 
74 X 2 X 31 -f- 60= 76.4 train hours per day of 24 hours for 
express service. Express service to consist of two-car units 
carrying the following crew : 

1 motorman at $3 per day of 10 hours ; 
1 conductor at $2.50 per day of 10 hours ; 
1 conductor at $2.50 per day of 10 hours ; 
$8 per day of 10 hours, or $0.80 per car hour. 
76.4 X $0.80x365 = $22,308.80, cost of express train ser- 
vice per year. 
$40,751.875 + $22,308.80 = $63,060,675, total cost 
Adding one-third of above for extra men — $21,020.22 — 
we have $63,060,675 + $21,020.22 = $84,080,895, total 
cost trainmen, etc., per year. 



B. Station Crews. 

22 stations using 5 men each = 110 men at an average of 

$2 per day each = $220 per day. 
$220 X 365 — per year = $80,300. 



72 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

C. Maintenance and Inspection of Cars and Equipment. 

Total car mileage equals 4,169,760 per year, and allowing for 
extra occasions will equal 4,500,000, at $.02 per car mile 
= $90,000. 

D. Maintenance of Roadivay and Structures. 

96 miles single track, including sidings, etc., at $1,000 per 
mile per year = $96,000. 

E. Cost of Power, 

Local service, 124 x 2 x 21 = 5,208 local car miles per day. 
At 160 watt hours per ton mile = 270,816 x 160 = 43,330,- 

560 watt hours per day for local service. 
Express service, 74 x 2 x 21 = 3,108 train miles per day for 

express service. 
3,108 X 2 = 6,216 car miles per day. 

6,216x 52 = 32 3, 232 ton miles per day for express service. 
323,232 x 130 = 42,020,160 watt hours per day for express 

service. 
42,020,160 + 43,330,560 = 85,350,720, total watt hours per 

day of 24 hours^ or 85,350.7 kw. hours. 
Add 18 per cent, for loss from main station to third rail and 

5 per cent, for heating and 2 per cent, for lighting; 25 

per cent.= 21,337.7. 
85,350.7 + 21,337.7 = 106,688.4 kw. hours. This at $.0065 

per kilowatt hour = $693.47 per day for producing the 

power and maintaining the power station. 
365 X $693.47 = $253,165.55 per year. 

Power Station Detail. 

1 chief engineer, per day $10 00 

3 assistant engineers at $5 per day 15 00 

30 oilers at $2.50 per day 75 00 

3 switchboard men 10 50 



ESTIMATE OF OPERATING EXPENSES. 73 

3 electric helpers $7 50 

6 cleaners 9 00 

6 condenser men 15 00 

machinist and two helpers 9 00 

24 boiler men at $2.50 per day 60 00 

boiler cleaner and two helpers 6 00 

4 laborers 6 00 



$223 00 



Coal at $2.40 per ton; 106,684 kw. at 2| lbs. coal per kilo- 
watt = 293,381 lbs., or 146.69 tons coal per day. 

146.69 X $2.40 = $352,057, cost of coal per day. $223 + 
$325,057 = $575,057, cost of labor and coal per day of 
106,684 kw. hours. 

$575,057 -f- 106,684 = $.00538 per kilowatt hour. $.0065 
— $.00538 = $.00112, for repairs and maintenance per 
kilowatt hour. 

In arriving at the costs of the maintenance of way and 
structures for the railroad considered in the foregoing esti- 
mate, the following figures were taken as the annual cost per 
mile of single track : 

Kenewals of rails $256 00 

Renewals of ties 108 00 

Renewals of ballast 35 00 

Labor 364 00 

Repairs and renewals of fencing 25 00 



Total $882 00 



There will be several other minor items entering into this 
cost, such as the cost of occasionally changing the switches, 
the cutting of weeds, and maintenance of the block-signal 
system, which, however, would not materially augment the 



74 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

above sum. In order, however, to be on the safe side of this 
matter, I have taken $1,000 per mile as the cost of mainte- 
nance of way and structures, and have taken a total mileage 
of 96 miles. 

The cost of the rail splices, bolts, and spikes is $5,092 
per mile of single track. 

The cost of the ties per mile of single track is taken at 
$1,848. 

The steam-trunk lines of the United States estimate the 
life of their rails for main-line service at about 15 years, 
after which they are replaced, and the old rails used for 
sidings and other light and intermittent service. A service 
of 15 years on trunk lines using the heaviest steam engines 
is certainly equivalent to a service of 20 years for conditions 
such as will prevail on the average high-speed electric line, 
using rails as they are now made. A life of 20 years is 
ecpjivalent to 5 per cent, for renewals. 

Applying the same reasoning to the item of tie renewals, 
and allowing 6 per cent, for this item, will equal to $108 
per mile of single track per year. 

Five per cent, per mile of single track per year has been 
allowed for renewal of the rock ballast. 

The cost of the labor item has been arrived at by dividing 

the road into sections 3 miles in length, and allowing 5 

trackman, at a total of $9 per day, and 2 linemen, at a total 

of $5 per day per section. Sections 3 miles long of 4 tracks 

each, or 12 miles of single track = $14 per day or $14 x 312 

= $4,368 per 12 miles per year, or 

4368 

= $364 per mile of single track per year. 

In the foregoing figures relating to the cost of power, as 
shown at " E," the weight of the loaded motor car is taken 
at 52 tons, divided as follows: 25 tons for the weight of the 
car and trucks; 17 tons for the weight of the equipment; 10 
tons for the weight of the passengers. This is probably 



ESTIMATE OF OPERATING EXPEX1SE8. 75 

slightly in excess of that which would ultimately maintain. 
The first sets of run sheets constructed showed for the local 
service an energy consumption in watt hours per ton mile 
varying between 138 and 160. The larger figures were taken 
for the purpose of being on the safe side and are used above. 
After the conditions had been thoroughly studied for some 
months, the energy consumption in watt hours per ton mile, 
for both the local and express schedules was very much re- 
duced. 

In the foregoing illustration of the method pursued in ar- 
riving at some of the operating costs of the ISTew York & Port 
Chester Railroad, it will be noted that almost all of the 
figures are essentially original, that is, they are not based 
upon car mileage or other data obtained from the operating 
records of other railroads. The reason for this is that at the 
time these figures were made, there was absolutely no other 
railroad in existence constructed according to the plans of 
construction of the l^ew York & Port Chester Railroad Com- 
pany, or operated as it was proposed to operate this road. 
After completing the estimate sho^\Ti above, I deemed it 
advisable, if possible, to make an estimate based upon some 
operating conditions. The nearest approach which could be 
arrived at at the time Avas that of an elevated road in a large 
city, operating at a schedule speed of about 16 miles per 
hour. For the purpose- of comparison, in what follows, the 
elevated railroad will be referred to as the Elevated Road. 

From the ofiicial records of the Elevated Road, the operat- 
ing costs per car mile for the various items were worked out. 
These costs are as follows : 

(1) Train crews, telegraphers, couplers, and yard 

men $.0237 per car mile. 

(2) Station men, agents, porters, and laborers.. .0072 " " " 

(3) Maintenance, inspection, and up-keep of cars, 

trucks, and motive power 0125 

(4) Repairs of structure and roadway 0065 

(5) Cost of power for transportation, lighting, 

and braking 0123 



7G ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

(6) Rotaries (none used). 

(7) Miscellaneous expenses, supplies, etc $.0021 per car mile. 

(8) General expenses, salaries, etc 0084 " " " 

$.0727 " " '•' 

(9) City tax on cars and other taxes 00648 " " " 

( 10) Legal expenses and injuries 00532 '* " " 

$.0845 '•' " " 



For the purpose of making the comparison, or, rather, of 
arriving at the operating cost of the Port Chester Road upon 
a car mile basis, each of the foregoing items was considered 
in detail as follows: 

It was concluded that the New York & Port Chester Road 
would use a maximum of about 9 kilowatt hours per car 
mile at the central station, as against about 2 kilowatt hours 
per car mile at the central station which the Elevated Road 
was using — an excess of 7 kilowatt hours. 

At $.0065 per kilowatt hour, there would be 4.55 cents 
excess cost per car mile for power for the I^ew York & Port 
Chester Road, as compared with that of the Elevated Road. 

The depreciation of the roadbed for the Port Chester 
Road should not be any greater than that for the elevated 
road. 

The cost of maintenance of motors and cars will be in- 
creased about 1 cent per car mile, on account of the use 
of larger motors, etc. 

The cost of the wages of trainmen, etc., per car mile, will 
be less for the Port Chester Road, on account of the in- 
creased schedule, the difference being about one-third — or 
about $.0076. 

The cost of the operation of the rotaries is an extra to be 
added. This additional cost is estimated at $.0037 per car 
mile. 

The general expenses should not be increased. 



ESTIMATE OF OPERATING EXPENSES. 77 

For unknown expenses and contingencies, there was added 
$.0075 per car mile. 

Apply these changes to the E'ew York & Port Chester 
Road, as follows : 

By excluding items (9) and (10) of the table shown above, 
we find that the cost of operation per car mile for the 

elevated road is 7.27 cents. 

Add additional cost, for Port Chester road, for power 4.55 '^ 

For maintenance of cars and motors 1.00 " 

For rotaries 37 " 

For unknown expenses and contingencies 75 " 

13.94 " 
Subtract — difference for train crews, etc 76 " 

Balance 13.18 " 

Add — for legal expenses, injuries, and taxes (same as ele- 
vated road) 1.18 " 

Total per car mile 14.36 " 



By comparing the results arrived at in the manner last 
shown with the figures obtained by determining the detailed 
cost of each and every item as shown in the preceding esti- 
mate of operating costs, it will be noted that a fair check 
is obtained. It will be noted, however, that the operating 
costs obtained by the detailed method as shown are greater 
than those obtained by the comparative method last sho^\Ti, 
which only serves to bear out the statement made elsewhere 
in this book that the method of determining operating costs 
for any given set of conditions by comparing them with other 
as nearly as possible similar set of conditions, is not, by any 
means, always reliable. I desire to repeat here again that 
the only proper way to do is to determine the detailed cost 
of each and every item for the proposed conditions. The 
results may, of course, be checked by comparison with as 
nearly as possible similar conditions as was done above. 



CHAPTEE VIII. 

THE FINAL SURVEY. 

Preparatory to the preparation of the ultimate specifica- 
tions, the entire line must be finally inspected and the loca- 
tion, length, and kind of each highway or other crossing 
determined, together with all culverts and drainage systems. 
A detail of each highway, railroad, water-way, or other cross" 
ing, w^hether arch or subway, together with each culvert, 
must be prepared. Such details show the quantities of all 
materials of each of such structures, together with the cost 
of construction. 

If necessary the field parties are again sent out to take 
cross-sectional measurements at such intervals as will enable 
a final and accurate estimate to be made of the quantities 
of earth and rock cut and fill. The accuracy of the earth 
and rock work estimates will depend not so much upon 
the number as upon the positions of the cross-sections taken^ 
Soundings or borings are also obtained to determine the 
nature of the soil and the approximate locations of the earth 
and rock, and the respective quantities of each. 

As a general rule, the railroad companies, for such cases 
as herein indicated, let a contract to some individual or 
company to furnish them with the data relating to the de- 
tails of the soil beneath the surface of the earth, for the 
distance desired, equal to the depth of the proposed grade 
line below such surface. Such contracts provide that the 
contractor shall make borings or soundings at points indi- 
cated by the railroad company along the line of its route. 
The contract provides that the contractor shall produce a 
sectional sample, to scale, for each of such points. The 
method of procedure consists in boring into the ground and 
in taking a sample of each of the kinds of rock and earth 
met with in the boring, and noting the depth and extent 
of such rock or earth. A glass tube is then taken and 

[78] 



TEE FIXAL SURVEY. 79 

the earth or rock, as the case may be, placed in such a 
glass tube in the exact relative positions in which it was 
found in boring. The distance from the top part of the 
earth or rock in the glass tube to the bottom is, to scale, 
the distance from the surface to the bottom of the bor- 
ing. Each of the subsoil materials is represented in this 
glass tube to scale. Such contracts are generally given at 
so much per foot of boring. The price ranges from 10 to 
25 cents per vertical foot. The contractor furnishes all the 
material and men for the work. 

After the final line has been mapped out it is located on 
the ground. Line stakes, which are wooden sticks about 
IJ inches square and 15 inches long, pointed at one end, 
are carefully set. All alignment curves are finally run and 
staked. All fences or other property boundaries are accu- 
rately measured and taken together with the names of the 
property-o^\mers. 

The stations or stopping places are finally determined. 

The run sheets are compared again Avith the final survey 
and are altered to accord with it, or if necessary the route 
is altered to secure a better run sheet as each, of course, 
depends on the other. A slight and almost immaterial change 
in the route will occasionally improve the run sheet and 
vice versa. The engineer at this time will settle the details 
of the proposed schedules, which have, up to this point, 
been determined only approximately, such as length of 
stops at stations, laying over time at termini, permissible 
limits of acceleration, maximum speed and its duration, 
and, where required, the maximum current, as well as 
the square root of the mean square of the current for the 
different runs. 

This last item, that is, the square root of the mean square 
of the current, is essentially one of the details of design. 
Its value as an element to be taken into consideration is 
disputed. It has no intrinsic value to the consulting en- 
gineer. In determining upon a motor equipment, the en- 



80 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

gineer will do best to rely essentially upon the manufactur- 
ers' data and guarantees, and upon the acceptance tests over 
an equivalent run, which the engineer should lay out and 
specify. The manufacturers are always in a better position 
to determine what factors shall enter into the design of a 
motor than the consulting engineer, who is really only con- 
cerned with the matter of performance. 

With the schedules or time-tables plotted on cross-section 
paper, as already described, the load diagram is ascertained 
for the purpose of finally determining the details of the 
power-houses, substations and transmission systems. 

A load diagram can be obtained by calculating the vary- 
ing loads at different periods of the 24 hours, as shown in 
Chapter Y, and plotting the results. Where load curves 
are calculated, an average, instead of an actual run is taken. 
Motors, equipment, gear ratio, and energy consumption may 
also be conveniently determined by taking average runs. 

Plates I, II, and III show typical individual run sheets 
between certain stations. As will be noticed, typical data 
of each run is given, and on the total sheet similar data 
should also be shown for each total run curve. Such 
data are determined by integration or computation after the 
power curves or run sheets have been obtained, and con- 
sist of: 

1. Distance. 

2. Ton miles per car. 

3. Total kilowatt hours per run. 

4. Kilowatf hours per car mile. 

5. Watt hours per ton mile. 

There is a point to which attention should be called in 
connection with these run sheets, and which will appear 
more in the detail in Chapter XIII. This is, that the actual 
initial, or accelerating line is not the smooth even line shown 
on the total run sheet, Plate III, or as shown on the dia- 
grams, Plates I and II. The actual line is serrated, while the 
lines shown in the diagrams are the average lines. They are, 



THE FINAL SURVEY. 81 

however, accurate to within such a small percentage as to 
make their use entirely proper. It should also be noted that 
the line of braking cannot be straight, as shown. It is also 
irregular in shape. The lines shown as the braking lines 
are also the lines showing the average effect. It is the lines 
showing the average effect that are always used. 

The maximum current, and all currents obtained by con- 
structing the load diagrams, are those that are required at 
the track, to wdiich must be added the losses wdiich will 
occur betw^een the track and the substation, in order to de- 
termine the capacity of the substations and the sizes of the 
units in them. 

To the energy required at the substations must be added 
the transmission losses between the substations and the main 
or generating station, to determine the capacity of the main 
station, and the sizes of the units in it. 

The conductors used for conveying the energy from the 
main station to the substations may be either aluminum or 
copper. Aluminum is very widely used where the wires 
are carried on overhead lines; copper is invariably employed 
where the transmission is done by burying the conductors, 
as in the case of cities and towTis. 

The elements, controlling the determination of the size 
of the conductors for transmission systems, may be briefly 
referred to at this point. 

In the case of alternating current systems there is to be 
considered, in determining the size of conductors, in addition 
to the ohmic resistance, the element of reactance, which in 
the case of high frequencies may be controlling. The the- 
ory of the effects of reactance, together with its components, 
is fully set forth in text-books on the alternating current, 
and will not be taken up here as it only enters into the de- 
termination of the size of the conductors connecting the 
main station with the substations. 

The direct current transmission system is determined by 
dividing the road into sections, each a mile or more in length, 
6 



82 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

depending upon the load which will be on any section and 
substation. Each section is insulated from the ones adjacent 
to it, for the purpose of providing against a derangement of 
the entire system in the event of an accident or a short circuit 
at any given point or points. 

The method of procedure is to make a diagrammatic repre- 
sentation of the entire line to scale. All of the cars, during 
the times or periods of maximum service should then be lo- 
cated on this diagram, at their proper relative distances 
apart on the diagram. With the cars so spaced the road 
should be divided into sections. The loads and their dis- 
tances from the feeding substation will, in this case, determine 
the length of each section. The number, position, and, con- 
sequently, the degree of motion of the cars of each section, 
during the times of maximum service, will determine the 
amount and distribution of the maximum current required 
for each section. The next step is to ascertain from the 
distribution of the current required for each section, the 
point which is known as the electrical center of gravity of 
the section, and to this point the feeder or feeders from the 
proper substation should be run. Ohm's law and wiring- 
tables will enable any one to determine the cross-sectional 
area of the electrical conductors for any determined loss 
from the substations to the point of tapping any section. 
The modification of Ohm's law to be used is expressed by 
the formula: 

CxL 
A = Kx — 

Where 
A --^=-- cross-sectional area of the current conductor in circular 

mils. 
= current in amperes. 
E = loss in volts. 
L = total length of circuit, that is, the distance to the point 

of feeding plus the return distance. 



TEE FIXAL SURVEY, 83^ 

K = constant depending upon the conductivity of the con- 
ductor. 
The formula, as commonly used, is expressed as follows: 

j)xC 
circular mils = 21 . 12 x 

E 

Where 
D = simply the distance from the substation to the feeding 
point or the distance one way. 

This is for copper wire having a conductivity of 98 per 
cent. 

For aluminum the formula is the same with a proper value 
for K 

The resistance of 1 circular mil. foot of aluminum having 

a conductivity of 51 per cent, at 65 degrees F. = 17.225 

ohms. The formula for aluminum becomes: 

DxC 

circular mils = 34.45 x 

E 

The maximum losses between the main station and the 
substation should not be over 6 or 7 per cent. The average 
maximum losses between the substations and the car-col- 
lecting devices should not be over 12 per cent. In Chapter 
V attention has been called to the necessity of providing 
for fluctuations which vary from 20 to 33 per cent, or more. 

The best practice of to-day for the power-house installa- 
tion for an extended interurban system consists of a high- 
tension alternating current central station plant, the poten- 
tial of distribution at the generators ranging between 10,000 
and 30,000 volts. In some cases of very high voltage the 
generator voltage is raised by means of step-up transformers, 
instead of being developed directly in the generator. 

The energy is then transmitted to the substations at the 
high voltage, where the voltage is reduced by means of step- 
down transformers, from where it passes through an alter- 
nate current switchboard, and is then carried to the alter- 
nate current side of the rotary converters, where the energy. 



84 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

is transformed into direct current and taken from the 
commutator of the rotary converter to the direct current 
switchboard at 650 to 750 volts, from where it is carried to 
the car-collecting devices through copper or other conductors. 

In the event of a commercial alternating current motor 
being brought out, the alternating current generating system 
here described could be used by simply replacing the rotary 
converter substations, with static transformers placed along 
the line at properly determined intervals. The only financial 
loss in the event of the development of an alternating cur- 
rent commercial motor and system would be that involved 
in the motors and rotary converters, which will be compara- 
tively insignificant. 

An alternating current system has many desirable charac- 
teristics, among which are : 

1. The ability to use much higher voltages and thereby 
effect a considerable saving in the cost of the transmission 
systems. 

2. The use of induction motors, the simplicity of which 
are very marked, eliminating, as they do, the necessity for 
commutators. As they consist of nothing more than a com- 
pact revolving mass of iron and copper, their mechanical con- 
struction can be made all that could be desired. At the 
present time induction motor control apparatus has not been 
brought to a desirable state of simplicity, but there is no 
reason why admirable results should not be expected in the 
very near future. 

In the case of direct current the voltage is limited by the 
commutator. At the present time the large manufacturing 
companies do not feel that they would care to guarantee a 
direct current railway motor, operating at a potential in 
excess of 700 volts. Again, a direct current substation will 
generally transmit the direct current economically for about 
a distance of from 8 to 10 miles on each side of the substa- 
tions, for cases such as have been under discussion, the eco- 
nomical distance depending upon the car service or loads. 



CHAPTEE IX. 

TRACK CONSTRUCTIOlSr AND SUPERS TRUCTURK 

The rail used in track construction for the class of electric 
roads which is being considered differs from that required 
by electric roads whose track or tracks lie in paved streets. 
In the latter cases the authorities generally require a rail 
to be used which will interfere as little as possible with 
vehicular traffic. The track for the high-class, high-speed 
interurban electric line does not differ materially from that 
required for the best steam railroad construction, except in 
the question of location, w^hich has been thoroughly discussed 
in a previous chapter, bonding, and the use of the rail for 
the return circuit, both of which will be discussed later. 

It is not the intention to take up minutely the questions of 
ballast, ties, rail-sections, and composition, rail-joints and 
other points in which an interurban electric railway track 
is similar to that used for steam railroad work. These sub- 
jects would require a book in themselves, and, in addition,, 
there are many excellent treatises upon them. It might be 
stated, however, that as a rule the service imposed upon 
electric railway track is not so severe as that imposed upon 
a track for steam railroad service. The heaviest electric cars 
of to-day, with their load and equipment, do not exceed 50 
tons in weight, and the absence of reciprocating parts which 
exist in steam locomotives makes the electric car luuch less 
wearing on the track than in steam railroad service. It is 
possible, for this reason, to use a lighter rail, and, as a rule, 
an 80-pound T rail is amply sufficient for the sendee. The 
matter of the proper width of the right of way for one, two, or 
four tracks, together with the determination of the proper 
slope of the earth in cuts or fills, is discussed in another 
chapter. 

Proper ballasting is most essential for the purposes of 
drainage and for the additional purposes of preserving the 

[85] 



86 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS, 

surface and alignment of the track. Practice differs as to 
the amount of ballast required^ but from six to ten inches 
under the tie is usually ample if care is taken to have the 
ballast well tamped under and between the ties. In good 
practice, the ballast is brought up between the ties to the level 
of the top of the ties. Broken stone to pass through a two and 
one-half inch ring is the size usually specified. Gravel and 
cinders may be used, but are not as desirable as broken stone. 
It is always advisable in selecting ballast to choose one which 
will produce a minimum amount of dust in the operation of 
the road, and broken stone is the best material which can be 
used for this purpose. Where the ballast is deeper than six 
or eight inches, it is sometimes customary to lay the bottom 
course of larger stones to act as a foundation for the smaller 
ones. While this course has been adopted, it is certainly 
not to be recommended unless unusual care is taken in 
laying the bottom or foundation stones. 

The standard tie on the ^ew York Central Railroad is 
'^"x 8"x 8', and very few of the larger steam roads use a tie 
smaller than 6" x8" x 8'. At the present time, yellow pine 
ties are being very extensively used for straight track work, 
as are also cedar ties. Chestnut ties are also extensively used. 
The best tie for lasting qualities is the white oak hewed tie. 
Where pine or other ties are used for straight track work, 
white oak should always be adopted for curves, on account 
of the better holding power which a white oak tie furnishes 
for the spikes. While white oak ties are considerably more 
expensive than the others, their use will be found more 
economical in the end, especially for high-speed installations 
where the spreading of the rail will be a most serious matter. 

Ties are spaced any^vhere from 15 to 30 inches apart be- 
tween tie centers, depending upon the service conditions of 
the road. Where a third rail is used, it is necessary to have 
about every fifth tie from six inches to a foot longer to carry 
the thi^d-rail insulator. Third-rail ties are generally of oak 



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End View and Cross Section. 

[87] • 



88 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

for the purpose of securing the necessary stability of the 
third rail. 

Modern practice on both steam and electric railroads tends 
toward the use of a rail section known as the standard of the 
American Society of Civil Engineers, and which is char- 
acterized by a flat head with sides vertical or nearly vertical 
and with the following distribution of metal: Head, 42 
per cent.; web, 21 per cent.; base, 37 per cent. In electric 
work the rails are now often laid in 60-foot lengths and 
tie plates are usually employed. 

The following table gives the allowance for expansion in 
degrees F., at the time the rail is being laid, followed in 
standard first-class construction where a 70-pound rail is 
employed : 



Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 


Allowance 
Inches. 


Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 


Allowance 
Inches. 


80 


1/16 


50 


JL 

4 


70 


i 


40 


5/16 


60 


3/16 


30 


# 



Tables showing the proper allowance for expansion for 
different temperatures can be found in any of the well-known 
engineering hand-books. The proper joint space for anj^ set 
of conditions can also readily be calculated from data re- 
lating to expansion coefficients, etc., to be found in almost 
any work on civil engineering. 

All interurban railway track should be bonded by a con- 
cealed rail bond to protect the bond from accidental or in- 
tentional injury. This construction requires the selection of 
an angle plate which will not wear down so as to chafe or 
wear out the head of the bond. Great care should be exer- 
cised in installing the bonds, as any slight oxidation be- 
tw^een the face of the bond and the interior surface of the 
bond hole will create future trouble and expense. Bonding 
should preferably be done in dry weather and the bond holes 
should be freshly reamed before inserting the bond. 



CONSTRUCTION AND SUPERSTRUCTURE. 80 

There is a variety of bonds on the market, any one of 
which can be rendered practically worthless by carelessness 
in installation, whereas almost any one of half a dozen dif- 
ferent makes will give perfectly satisfactory results if prop- 
erly installed. The chief desiderata in a bond after the most 
important qualification of good contact are area of contact 
and ample carrying capacity. 

The proper length of angle bar depends upon whether 
the suspended or supported joint is used. Practice differs 
in this respect, but the suspended joint staggered is in the 
opinion of the writer the most desirable to use in high-speed 
service. With suspended joints the joint ties are usually 
from 8 inches to 10 inches apart, while with the supported 
joint, the joint tie is usually laid about 6 inches from the 
two adjoining ties. 

The two end bolt holes in the rail are usually punched 
nearer the end in electric railway work than in steam rail- 
way track, and the bond holes are punched midway between 
the first and second bolt holes, counting from the ends of 
the rails. A number of special bridge joints, such as the 
" continuous," Weber, Churchill and Atlas have also 
been and are being used very largely in electric track con- 
struction. 

Block signals are quite as important on high-speed electric 
railways as on steam railroads, but the type of signal usually 
used in steam railroad work is not entirely applicable to elec- 
tric railway conditions. In steam railroad work the track is 
divided into sections, and the sections are insulated from 
each other, as are also each line of rails. As only a low 
voltage is used with the batteries which operate the block-sig- 
nal system, no elaborate preparation has to be made for its 
insulation, the only precaution taken being that insulating 
blocks are inserted where the switch levers connect the rails 
of each track. The axles of a steam train on any section of 
track short-circuit the rails and thus operate the block signal, 
indicating that the section is occupied by a train. 



90 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



With an electric railway line where the entire track has 
to be very carefully bonded and cross-bonded, an arrange- 
ment of this kind is not applicable. The only means avail- 
able is to install a separate circuit, and on surface lines this 
is usually accomplished by some modification of the simple 
plan shown below. In this diagram, which indicates a 

Trolley Wire 




Ground 

c 

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING BLOCK-SIGNAL SYSTEM. 

single-track line, A, B, and C are the turnouts. An auxiliary 
wire connects the two turnouts and has at each end a double- 
throw switch so that the line can be connected either to the 
trolley wire or to the ground. With a 500-volt line five lamps 
are used in series with this circuit, and these lamps are 
grouped so that the two lamps, d, are in, say, the upper sec- 
tion of the signal box at B, and the three lamps, e, are in 
the lower half of the same box. As drawn, the sec- 
tion B C is blocked, and the section A B is open, 
the blocking being indicated by the lamps burning, and 
the open section being indicated by the lamps dark. A 
car then traveling from C to B on reaching B clears the 
section B C by throwing down the switch controlling 
that block and closes the block A B by a movement 
of the switch controlling the lamp block. It can easily be 
seen that by this system the movement can be in either di- 
rection, that is, an open block can be closed from either end, 
and the cars do not have to pass alternately in each direction 
through the block. Modifications of this system have been 



CONSTRUCTION AND SUPERSTRUCTURE. 91 

made by which the signals are operated automatically so 
that the car does not have to be stopped to provide for manual 
operation by the conductor. 

The condition of block-signal systems, as they are now 
adapted to interurban electric railways, is not by any means 
satisfactory. The essential requisite, that is, reliability of 
operation, appears to be lacking. On a number of inter- 
urban electric railways, operating overhead trolley systems 
at relatively high speeds, the operations of the signals are 
affected by the trolley wheel passing under and contacting 
with a piece of metal attached to the trolley wire. Such 
systems generally operate fairly well throughout the sum- 
mer months, but there appears to have been a great deal of 
difficulty with them during the winter months on account of 
sleet and snow. At this time, judging by the number of ap- 
plications for patents for block-signal systems for electric 
railways, there appears to be little or no doubt that a 
satisfactory system will be forthcoming in the near future. 
In looking over the list of patents, one is struck by the 
thought and the ingenuity put forth to devise safe and reli- 
able systems for the condition of single-track roads using 
turnouts. Some of the systems devised with this class of 
roads in view would, in all probability, be applicable to 
other conditions, such as double-track roads. It appears to 
me that such well-meaning inventors overlook the fact that 
the first requisite of safety in the operation of high-speed 
electric roads must be at least a double-track road, and that 
such inventors would do far better if they would devote their 
energies to the development of block-signal systems for 
double-track roads, which would probably not require nearly 
the ingenuity of some of the proposed single-track turnout 
systems, application for patents for which have recently been 
filed in the patent office. 

Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 6, on page 93, are a set of dia- 
grams showing various arrangements of the " blocks," or 
sections of block signal systems. Diagrams 1, 2, 5, and 6 



92 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

show the arrangement where each block or section is pro- 
vided with an '' overlap/' the object of which is to let a train 
unit get well beyond a controlling signal before the signal 
will move to danger. The amount of overlap for any given 
installation will be determined by the maximum speed, the 
safe distance in which a train can be brought to a stop from 
the maximum speed and the headway of the train units. 

Figures 3 and 4 show the arrangement of a block signal 
system where no overlap is used. 

Notwithstanding the apparent advantages of overlap, there 
are many engineers who do not favor its use. The argu- 
ment against its use generally is that it encourages careless 
running, for the reason that a train operator always feels that, 
should he pass a signal at danger, he has yet a considerable 
distance to go before he can encounter any other train. 

Consider, for a moment, diagrams 3 and 4. The moment 
the train passes out of any block, as D, C, or B, both the 
signals at the entrance of the block next entered at once go to 
danger, while at the entrance of the block just vacated, the dis- 
tance signal alone is at danger. It is well known that train- 
men take liberties with " distance " or cautionary signals in 
the matter of speeds, which they do not take with danger or 
" home " signals. Inasmuch as the home or danger signal 
(in no-lap systems) acts just as soon as a car or train is op- 
posite the signal, it is evident that a following train might 
not be able to avoid a disaster after seeing a danger signal 
on account of the train ahead being at rest practically at 
the signal intended to warn the train behind it. 

There is no reason why as good discipline should not be 
maintained with an " overlap " system as with the " no-lap " 
system. An overlap system is simply giving the traveling 
public and the railroad company another chance against the 
possible inadvertence, recklessness, or carelessness of its men. 

The fact that in some recent instances where bad wrecks 
have occurred, the existing ^^ no-lap " systems have been 
changed to properly designed '^ overlap " systems is probably 
the best argument for the use of the overlap system. 



Fig.6 Fig.5 



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[93] 



94 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

The Boston Elevated Railway Company uses on its ele- 
vated lines a system somewhat similar to that used on steam 
railroads, and secures the extra circuit necessary by insulat- 
ing one of the rails. This is permissible on an elevated rail- 
road, because the carrying capacity provided by both rails 
is not necessary in the return circuit where the iron structure 
of an elevated railway is available for this purpose. The 
sacrifice of one line of rails on a surface road or some of the 
recently designed subway systems, is a serious matter, but 
appears necessary in the present state of the block-signal sys- 
tems now obtainable. In some cases the sacrifice of one of the 
track-rails for signal purposes is impracticable. In Boston, 
the additional precaution has been adopted of providing, in 
connection with the block signals, an automatic stop, consist- 
ing of a small lever which is properly located near the track 
rails, and which is raised by the movement of the semaphore 
apparatus. If the sigTial is disregarded, a projection on the 
train in passing this signal strikes and trips a lever which 
opens the air-brake line as well as the main circuit breaker, 
thus cutting off all power and setting the brakes simultane- 
ously. 

The diagram on page 95 shows the electrical connections 
of the track circuits of the electro-pneumatic block-signal sys- 
tem of the Boston Elevated Hallway, which was installed by 
the Union Switch and Signal Company. The description of 
the operation of the system is as follows : 

The branch D from the main feed wire connects directly 
to two cut-out switches. The right-hand switch controls the 
current supply to the track circuit, which flows by wire 3 
through the two resistance coils, and wire T C to the block 
rail. These coils have 100 ohms in each, but only on the 
shortest block sections is the full resistance permissible. 

The left-hand switch controls the current to the signal 
mechanism, which flows normally to the swinging magnets 
of the polarized relay ; from thence it passes to the front con- 
tact of the relay, through the contact bar to posts 2 and S, 
where it divides and flows from 2 to a 16-c. p. lamp, and 




I'.o] 



9G ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECO^'OMICS. 

thence to the common return. From S it passes directly to 
the magnet of the signal air-valve, and from that to the re- 
turn. 

A train short-circuiting the relay causes the front con- 
tact to open, thus cutting all current from the signal and 
lamp and permitting the signal to move by gravity to danger. 
If, however, the relay should be excited by current from the 
propulsion system under this condition, the closure of the 
front contact would not be followed by a similar condition 
of the rear one (S) because of the polarized feature of the 
device. The lamp only, under these conditions, remains in 
circuit with the swinging magnets. 

Under normal conditions the signal circuit forms a shunt 
on the lamp, the coils of the swinging magnets forming a 
resistance common to both. By this arrangement any inter- 
ruption of the current through the swinging magnets must 
also interrupt that holding the signal at safety, and thus 
cause the latter to move to danger. 

The illustration on p. 97 shows one of the automatic 
trippers used on the Boston Elevated for setting the air- 
brakes of a train should the motorman attempt to pass the 
signal while it is in the danger position. This tripper is con- 
nected with the signal, and, when the latter goes to danger, is 
brought in an erect position, as shown in the engraving. It 
is then high enough to operate a valve in the train pipe 
carried on the car and thereby cause the air-brakes to be auto- 
matically applied and the train brought to a stand still. A 
system similar to that of the Boston Elevated Railway, which 
has just been described, is now being designed for the I^ew 
York. Eapid Transit Subway by the Union Switch and Signal 
Company. 

The right of way of any railroad operating over a private 
right of way should be fenced. This precaution is especially 
necessary in the case of high-speed roads operating upon 
private rights of way. A first-class set of right of way 
fences can be installed for $1,000 per mile. As an invest- 
ment, this is one of the best which a road can have. The 



COXSTRUCTION AND SUPERSTRUCTURE. 97 

fences should be substantial and so designed and erected as 
to make it exceedingly difficult for either persons or animals 
to obtain access to the right of way between the stations or 
stopping places. The best fencing is made of wire and can 
be obtained from any of the large wire manufacturing con- 




TRIPPING DEVICE AND AIR-LINE VALVE AND EXTENSION ARM FOR 

AUTOMATIC STOPPING BLOCK SIGNALS BOSTON ELEVATED 

RAILWAY. 

cerns. These concerns now make the fencing complete, that 
is, they have designed and manufactured various types of 
fencing posts. In addition, these large concerns will take 
contracts for erecting the fencing for any road at an agreed 
price of so much per foot of fencing erected. 

7 



98 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

I have already referred to the increasing use of concrete 
in railway bridge construction. 

The strain sheet (shown in Plate X) is for a 1 00-foot 
clear span, concrete-steel arch designed for the E'ew York 
& Port Chester Railroad. All these strain sheets are worked 
out by the same method, viz., by the elastic theory of solid 
elastic arches, which, since the publication of the exhaustive 
experiments made by the Austrian Society of Engineers and 
Architects in 1895, has been fully demonstrated to be the 
correct theory of the arch whatever may be the materials 
used in its construction. The arches have been carefully 
designed, the intrados having three centers^ and the curve 
of the neutral line of the arch being such that it is similar 
to the curve of the equilibrium polygon, so that the bending 
moment under dead load or under a full dead and live load 
is very small, and seldom cuts any figure in the maximum 
section required at any point of the arch. The arch is also 
calculated under the condition that one-half the span carries 
the maximum live load, while the other half is unloaded. 
The table given on the strain sheet gives the maximum 
thrust and bending moment under different conditions at the 
governing points. The maximum stress allowed on concrete 
is 500 pounds per square inch in compression, and 50 pounds 
per square inch in tension; the maximum stress allowed on 
steel is 10,000 pounds per square inch in compression and 
1,000 pounds per square inch in tension, the stresses on con- 
crete and steel being inversely proportioned to their moduli 
of elasticity. By careful designing the tension on the con- 
crete has been eliminated, and the compression falls consid- 
erably short of the allowed limit. As the allowed tension 
in the steel cannot under ordinary conditions exceed 1,000 
pounds per square inch, there is a very large reserve 
strength in the steel which can be brought into action if 
required to satisfy any unusual conditions due to settlement 
of foundations or other causes, which would not hold true 
in any purely concrete bridge. 



CONSTRUCTION AND SUPERSTRUCTURE. 99 



The strength of hand-mixed concrete, 1 part cement, 
2 parts sand, and 4 parts broken stone, according to careful 
and reliable experiments made at Watertown Arsenal, was 
found to be as follows: 1 month old, 2,400 pounds per square 
inch; 3 months old, 2,900 pounds per square inch; 6 months 
old, 3,700 pounds per square inch; and the strength con- 
tinues to increase up to an age of 2 years or more. At the 
age of 1 month the concrete would have a minimum factor 
of safety of from 6 to 8 in the different spans; at the age 
of 3 months it will have a factor of safety of from 7 to 10; 
at the age of 6 months it will have a factor of safety of 
from 9 to 12, and at the age of 1 year it will have a factor 
of safety of from 12 to 15, and will continue to improve 
with time. 

The factors of safety above given are based on hand- 
mixed concrete, but in all probability concrete for these 
bridges, if mixed by a machine, v^ould give much bet- 
ter strength. Experiments of a mixture of 1 cement, 
2i sand, and 5 parts broken stone, which is a poor mixture, 
from the experiments made at the Munderldngen Bridge 
in Germany, gave an average strength of 3,730 pounds per 
square inch in twenty-eight days. Allowing for the dif- 
ference in mixture, this strength would have been about 
4,000 pounds per square inch, or QQ 2-3 per cent, stronger 
than the hand-mixed concrete at Watertown, increasing the 
factors of safety above given to that extent. 

The spandrel walls in all spans are provided with ex- 
pansion joints at the ends and at frequent intermediate 
points, to avoid any cracks that might otherwise take place 
due to settlement on the removal of the centering. More 
than 100 spans of concrete steel bridges have already been 
built in the United States, and probably three times this 
number in Europe, all of which have given the best of satis- 
faction and are no longer an experiment. They are com- 
mended highly by the best engineers in this country and 
abroad, and are rapidly increasing in number, superseding 



Loft. 



100 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

steel bridges to a great extent. They offer many advantages 
over a steel bridge ; they are more beautiful and graceful 
in design; architectural ornamentation can be applied as 
sparingly or as lavishly as desired ; they have vastly greater 
durability and generally greater ultimate economy ; they 
are comparatively free from vibration and noise ; they are 
proof against tornadoes, high water or fire ; the cost of main- 
tenance to the pavements or track is no greater than any 
other part of the street. Their cost, as a rule, does not much, 
if any, exceed that of steel bridges carrying a pavement, and 
in many cases, conditions being favorable, they can be built 
at a less cost than steel bridges. The steel ribs used in the 
arches are perfectly protected from oxidation, concrete being 
the best possible preservative of iron and steel. 

In these anchors of 50 feet width (four tracks at 12 feet 
6 inches centers) there are 17 steel ribs; that is, the ribs 
are about 3 feet centers. 



CHAPTEK X. 

OVERHEAD OR THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. 

The next question which will be taken up in the construc- 
tion of the proposed electric railway is whether to adopt a 
third rail or an overhead trolley. The latter is the standard 
for city railways, but the third rail possesses a number of 
advantages for heavy railway work over the trolley, and 
is perfectly feasible where the company owns its own right 
of way. It is, of course, necessary to interrupt the third 
rail at all grade crossings, which can be passed over by 
momentum, and also for such track as is laid in streets, or 
where there is danger of persons coming in accidental con- 
tact with the third rail without culpable negligence on their 
part. 

The principal advantages of the third rail over the trolley 
may be summed up as follows: 

1. Cheapness. — Taking current carrying capacity into con- 
sideration, the third rail can in many cases be installed for 
less cost than an overhead trolley line, even when we take 
into consideration the fact that an extra pole line will have 
to be erected for carrying the high-tension feeders. The 
cost of third-rail construction and the comparative cost of 
third-rail and overhead trolley construction is sho^vn by the 
following : 

TABLE VIII. 

Cost of Protected Third Rail. 

(Estimate made by W. B. Potter; August, 1902.) 

6''-Cliannel Iron Protection. 

5,280' 75-lb. 3" x 21/0" conductor rail, at $43 per ton (66 tons). $2,840 00 

528 Keconstructed granite insulators, clamps and lag screws, 

at 40 cts. per set 211 00 

352 No. 0000 GE 9'' Form B bonds, at 38 cts 134 00 



$3,185 00 



[101] 



102 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

5,280' 3U/^-lb. 6'' channel iron guard for conductor rail, at 

$45 per ton (21.71 tons) $1,248 00 

792 Malleable iron guard rail supports, at 36 cts 286 00 

176 Malleable iron fish-plates and bolts, at 25 cts 44 00 

$1,578 00 

Approximate labor for installation, including drilling rails 

and channels 900 00 

Total cost ,. . $5,663 00 

8''-Channel Iron Protection. 

5,280' 75-lb. 3" x 21/2'' conductor rail, at $43 per ton (66 tons) . $2,840 00 
528 Reconstructed granite insulators, clamps and lag screws, 

at 40 cts. per set 211 00 

352 No. 0000 GE 9" Form B bonds, at 38 cts 134 00 

$3,185 00 

5,280' 48-lb. 8'' channel iron guard for rail, at $45 per ton 

(42.24 tons) ... $1,900 00 

792 Malleable iron guard rail supports, at 36 cts 286 00 

176 Malleable iron fish-plates and bolts, at 25 cts 44 00 

$2,230 00 

Approximate labor for installation, including drilling, rails, 

and channels 900 00 

Total cost $6,315 00 

8"-Wood Protection. 

5,280' 75-lb. 3" x 21/2'' conductor rail, at $43 per ton (66 tons). $2,840 00 
528 Reconstructed granite insulators, clamps and lag screws, 

at 40 cts. per set 211 00 

352 No. 0000 GE 9" Form B bonds, at 38 cts 134 00 

$3,185 00 



OVERHEAD OB THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. 103 

6,280' Ash plank W2' x 8'', at $48 (M board feet) in the 

rough, 5,280 board feet $253 00 

792 Malleable iron guard rail supports for wooden guard 

plank, at 39 cts 308 00 

176 Malleable iron fish-plates and bolts, at 25 cts 44 00 

$605 00 

Approximate labor for installation, including drilling rails. ., 750 00 

Total cost $4,540 00 



TABLE IX. 

Cost of Protected Third Rail. 

(Estimate of Maurice Hoopes; September, 1901.) 

Third Rail. 

Extra length, 500 ties (9' 3" instead of 8' 0"), at 71/^ cts $37 50 

500 insulators and fastenings, at 50 cts 250 00 

62.86 tons 80-lb. low carbon rail, at ($35, $2 freight) 2,325 82 

Splice-plates and bolts — 176 joints, at 60 cts 105 60 

Bonds — 352 425,000 eir. mil bonds in place, at $1 352 00 

Cable for crossings — 200' 1,000,000 cir. mil paper, lead and 

jute, w4th terminals and installation, at $1.20 240 00 

Erecting rail 100 00 



$3,410 92 



Trolley. 
(Span construction and assuming one line of poles chargeable to trans- 
mission line.) 

Necessary bare copper trolley and feed wire to give .04025 
ohms per mile, thus equaling 80-lb. rail — 1,413,600 cir. 

mil.= 22,774 lbs., at 17 cts $3,871 58 

50 30^ X 8" chestnut poles erected, at $5 250 00 

Labor and material for erection of above feeder and trolley 
wire 300 00 

Total cost of trolley construction $4,421 58 

Total cost of third-rail construction 3,410 92 

Saving, third rail over trolley $1,010 66 

Or 23 per cent. 



104 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



In explanation of the foregoing comparative statement it should be 
said that it is based upon the use of a rail having a resistance of 12.9 
microhms per cubic centimeter, giving for an 80-lb. rail .04025 ohms 
per mile. It also assumes the bonds and cable to have the same resist- 
ance per unit of length as does the rail. From the above it will be 
noted that a mile of third-rail construction costs, approximately, 23 
per cent, less than a mile of trolley construction of equivalent con- 
ducting capacity. 




SECTION" OF PROTECTED THIRD RAIL AND INSULATOR 
MORE & OHIO RAILROAD. 



BALTI- 




Slaot = 1 to 12 




SECTIOX OF WOOD PROTECTED THIRD RAIL 
& IIAZLETON' RAILWAY. 



WILKESBARRE 



OVERHEAD OR THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. 



105 



Tlie above statement of comparative cost, by Mr. Hoopes, 
is probably tnie of some particular case in hand, but it is 
very doubtful if the above comparison will hold if it be made 
general, especially for light traffic, long-headway, cross-coun- 
try roads. There are very few roads having a resistance 
per mile equal to an 80-pound rail. Many suburban roads 
operate with two Xo. 000 wires and no feeder copper, which 
is equivalent to a resistance per mile of. 1632 ohms, or 




CHANI^EL IRO]!^ PROTECTED THIRD RAIL AND COK^TACT SHOE 

YARDS OF THE GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPAXY^ SCHENECTADY. 



about four times the amount given as the resistance of the 
80-pound rail. If, therefore, 75 per cent, of the cost of 
copper be taken out, that is, 75 per cent, of $3,871.58, the 
difference in cost ^\'ill favor the overhead construction in- 
stead of the third rail. For ordinary suburban roads having 
a very light equipment and operating at speeds not exceeding 
40 miles per hour, the overhead trolley is probably, generally 
speaking, a cheaper construction than the third rail. 



106 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



2. Better surface of contact. — A third rail can be more 
easily aligned than can an overhead trolley line and presents 
a practically level surface for the travel of the shoe without 



Truck centers 76 " 




SECTION OF THIRD RAIL CONSTRUCTION — GRAND RAPIDS, GRAND 
HAVEN & MUSKEGON RAILWAY. 



the horizontal and vertical variations unavoidable with the 
trolley wire. These variations in an overhead line make lit- 
tle difference when a car is running at a low rate of speed, 
but with high speed there is difficulty in keeping the trolley 
on the wire, and the effect of the jumping of the trolley 
wheel is to bend and wear out the wire, both by arcing and 
mechanical abrasion. 



OVERHEAD OR THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. : 107 

3. Durability. — The third rail, being of steel, is practi- 
cally indestructible, and as the number and area of contact 
of the shoes can be increased almost indefinitely without 
trouble, sufiicient contact can be insured to carry the enor- 
mous current required in high-speed electric-car movement. 
With the ordinary trolley wheel, from 150 to 200 amperes 
is about the maximum which can be drawTi from the wire 
,at speeds of from 30 to 40 miles an hour, without excessive 
heating and wear of the wheel. It should be stated, how- 
ever, that current ranging between 100 to 150 amperes is 
being drawn from trolley wires at speeds approaching 50 
miles per hour on roads in operation in this country 
to-day. There are several trolley roads which use a current 
of 200 amperes, and some at speeds of 35 to 40 miles pei* 
hour. These roads report an average life of from 3,000 to 
5,000 miles per trolley wheel before scrapping takes place. 
A multiplicity of trolley poles, however, means trouble in 
their manipulation and excessive wheel wear, while a sliding 
contact of sufficient area involves wear to the overhead 
structure and difficulty of securing continuous contact. The 
cheapness of the ordinary cast-iron shoe, as compared with 
a copper or bronze trolley wheel, is also a considerable factor. 

In view of all these considerations the third rail has been 
adopted as practically the best &tandard by high-speed in- 
terurban electric lines operating over their own right of way. 

The third rail is usually carried outside of the outside rail 
with its center a distance of about 20 inches from the gauge 
line of the outside track rail and its top from 6 inches to 
7 inches above that of the track rail. The foUow^ing table is 
a list of some of the third-rail roads in the United States 
and Europe, showing the location of the third rail in relation 
to the track rails : 



108 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS, 



TABLE X. 

List of Third-Rail Electric Systems, Giving Location of Third Rail. 



<^ "S eM d" 
QjA '-' ^ 5^ 

NAME OF RAILWAY. H S^ o^.^ 

O'co O gi-i 

Main line railways. 

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (old location) 1% 

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (new location) 3^ 

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad 1% 

Paris-Orleans Railway, France 7% 

Milan-Gallarate, Italy 7^ 

Mersey Railway, Liverpool A^/z 

Northeastern Railway, Newcastle 

Paris- Versailles Railway, France 7% 

Fayet-Chamonix Railway, France 9 

Wannseebahn, Berlin 12% 

Interurhan railways, electric sermee only. 

Albany & Hudson Railroad, New York 6 

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago, Illinois 6 5-16 

Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania. . . 6 

Grand Rapids, Grand Haven and Muskegon, Mich. . 5% 

Seattle-Tacoma Electric Railway, Washington 7% 

Elevated and underground electric r^O'ilicays. 

Metropolitan West Side Elevated, Chicago 6^ 

Lake Street Elevated, Chicago 6^^ 

South Side Elevated Railway, Chicago 6% 

Northwestern Elevated Railway, Chicago 6^ 

Brooklyn Elevated Railway 6 

Kings County Elevated Railway, Brooklyn 5^/4 

Boston Elevated Railway Company 6 

Manhattan Railway, New York 7^ 

Central London Railway, London 1^ 

Liverpool Overhead Railway 1'^ 

Berlin Elevated, elevated portion 7 

Berlin Elevated, underground portion 9 

New York Rapid Transit Subway 4 



t^O o o 



24 
30 
Center. 

25% 

26% 

22 

191/4 

25% 

23 

33% 



27 

201/8 

20% 

203/8 

20 



201/8 

201/8 

201/8 

201/8 

2214 

191/2 

20% 

203^ 

Center. 

Center. 



26 



OVERHEAD OB THIRD-RAIL C0X8TRUCTI0X. 



109 



Where the same track is used for steam trains, it is of 
course necessary to adjust the height of the third rail so as 
to clear the cylinder heads or any other projections of the 
steam train. It is usually supported on every fifth tie, or at 
distances about 10 feet apart, the ties being of proper length 
in order to provide support. Where there are breaks in the 
third rail, approaches must be provided, made either by bend- 
ing down the end of the third rail and milling off the bot- 
tom, or else bending down the end of the third rail slightly 




THIRD RAIL TAP AND CABLE TERMINAL AURORA^ ELGIN 

& CHICAGO RAILWAY. 



and clamping to it an end piece of wood or steel of section 
similar to the third rail itself. It is customary to allow a 
distance of 8 to 10 feet for the entire length of the approach. 
The third-rail insulators are of vitrified clay, reconstructed 
granite, wood, or composition. The insulator is made in 
three parts, the iron clamp which holds the rail, the insu- 
lator proper, and the stand or chair which is mounted on the 



110 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

tie. Some engineers believe in fitting these parts looselj 
together so that the rail is kept in position by gravity only. 
The argument in favor of this construction is that the weight 
of the train in passing over the track will depress the ties 
supporting the third-rail insulators, and it is not advisable 
to throw the resulting strain on the insulating material con- 
necting the third-rail cap and standard. 

The third rail is generally of standard rail cross-section, 
although any cross-section can be used and the first third- 
rail roads employed a section similar to an inverted V, but 
with a flat head. The conducting rail, however, must be 
low in carbon and manganese, and compared with the track 
rails is exceedingly soft and would be entirely unfit for use 
as a track rail. The composition used in the third rail of 
the Manhattan Elevated Railway Company of ^N^^ew York 
city, and that recommended by W. B. Potter, in the Street 
Railway Journal for August 2, 1902, are as follows: 



Carbon, not to exceed . . . . 
Manganese, not to exceed 
Sulphur, not to exceed . . , 
Phosphorus, not to exceed 



The Manhattan rail is rolled in 60-foot lengths and weighs 
100 pounds per yard. It has a cross-sectional area of 9 . 8 
square inches and an electrical resistance of about eight times 
that of copper of equivalent section, so that in conductivity it 
is equivalent to about 1,560,000 cir. mils of copper. 

As very little strain is brought upon the third rail, two or 
four-bolt angle plates are usually ample to keep it in align- 
ment. On the Manhattan Elevated Railway, to provide for 
the expansion of the third rail it is divided into sections of 
five-rail lengths, or 300 feet each. Each section is securely 
anchored at the center and allowed to expand from that 
jooint. Between the 300-foot sections a gap is allowed for ex- 



Manhattan, 
per cent. 


Potter, 
per cent, 


.073 


.12 


.341 


.15 


.073 


.05 


.069 


.10 



OVERHEAD OR THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. 



Ill 



pansion, depending on the temperature at the time the rail 
was laid, and an expansion splice bar is used with an allow- 
ance for a total variation of about 3 inches. 

Opinions differ as to the advisability of housing the third 
rail, but the latest opinion seems to be in favor of it. It not 
only protects persons from accidental contact with the rail, 
but also is a preventive of the interference with the road 



di 



\^^'\^'\^\^^\'^5:^5^^^^ 



EquUizer Bar 




K 



^ 




^^^^^'^^ 



SECTION OF PROTECTED THIED KAIL AND CONTACT SHOE 
WILKESEAERE & HAZLETON RAILWAY. 



from sleet. This latter is the most serious obstacle with 
which third-rail roads have to contend and is more trouble- 
some than ice or snow. Ice and snow can be brushed or 
scraped off, but the thin layer of sleet which forms when 
the surrounding temperature is just about at the freezing 
point is so thin that it defies the usual methods of scraping, 
and clings to the rail somewhat like varnish. On exposec^ 



112 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

third-rail roads it is usually removed by means of stiff-wire 
scraping brushes carried on frames set on the boxes, and it 
can be loosened by an application of brine. A thin oil spray 
is also useful in preventing sleet from forming on the rail. 
Sufficient experience has not yet Been secured with a pro- 
tected third rail to indicate whether the guard carried over 
the rail will be an absolute preventive of the formation of 
sleet, but it certainly reduces the trouble, although it may 




SHOE FOK PEOTECTED THIKD KAIL OPEEATION" WIEKESBAERE 

& HAZLETON" RAILWAY. 

have a tendency to cause the snow to pack between the head 
of the rail and the lower part of the protecting plank. The 
accompanying engravings show the protected third rail as 
used on the Wilkesbarre & Hazleton railway. 

Several other third-rail shoes in use are shown in the ac- 
companying pages. They are all of cast iron and depend 
upon their weight for contact. The shoes are usually sus- 
pended by two links and carry a flexible connection for carry- 
ing the current from the shoe to the car wiring, bolted fast to 
the shoe itself. The permissible range of movement of the 
shoe depends of course on the height of the head of the third 
rail above the track rail, and is usually from 3 to 5 inches. 



OVERHEAD OR THIRD-RAIL COySTRUCTIOX. 113 

The greater the clearance within certain limits the better, 
except that the third rail must not be so high that it will be 
hit by any part of the moving train. Cast iron has been 
adopted for the material of shoes because copper or brass 
will not stand the wear from friction. On the Baltimore & 
Ohio Kailroad, where especially heavy current has to be 
taken, a renewable steel-faced shoe, copper riveted to the 
body of the shoe support, is used. 



SIDE VIEW OF SHOE EOR PROTECTED THIRD RAIL WILKES- 

BARRE & IIAZLETON^ RAILWAY. 

The end of the shoe is turned up so that it will take 
smoothly the approaches to the third-rail sections, and for 
this reason the arrangement of links should be such that the 
shoe will tilt at positions of this kind. The insulation of 
the shoe must be exceptionally good as its breaking down 
would constitute a short circuit through the shoe hanger to 
the truck frame. Care must also be taken to proAdde so 
flexible a lead that the constant vibration to which the shoe 
is subjected wdll not tend to crystallize the wire. Usually 
two leads are used and the shoe hanger should be made ad- 
justable in height to the journal boxes, to which it is usually 
8 



114 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



attached, so as to take up any variation in height of the 
frame or third rail. With a protected third rail the shoe 
necessarily has to project from the truck so as to extend 
under the protecting guard, as shown in the cut on p. 111. 




SIDE ELEVATION OF THIRD-RAIL SHOE MANHATTAN" ELEVATED 

RAILWAY. 

Trolley wire construction is so far standardized that it is 
unnecessary to discuss the subject in detail, but a few points 
in connection with overhead construction for high-speed roads 
are worthy of consideration. 

Special care must be taken to insure a good alignment 
of the trolley mre. Span construction is not generally used 
on account of first ciost, but where brackets are used 
they should be of the flexible type, as rigid suspension of 
the hanger to the bracket, inadvisable under all conditions, 
is absolutely out of the question in high-speed service. The 
trolley wire should be at least ISTo. 00 in size and should be 
attached to the hanger by clips which embrace the upper 
half only of the wire. The wire may be milled out at the 
sides to receive the mechanical clip of the hanger, if a figure 
" 8 '' wire is not used. The ends of the ears should be long and 
tapering to prevent a tendency of the trolley wheel to bend the 



OVERHEAD OB THIRD-RAIL COXSTRUCTION, 



115 



^, 



'' Local 
Feeder^ 
'£00 Cable Glass 

S pin 'J Arm [ 

20"Galv. Brace " 

i' fi'loog 



Extension 



eeder/ Feedeiy 

5_E33"rT 



A^n7l^"C TubingJlTrolley Bridsej T / ^I'e'strand C^ ' 



% Fig.8 IroUey 



^ s 12 S/ebolt 



Trolley Telephone Line 

Str't Line Hangers *10 Copper 
1*153- Oh io Br. Co. Wood Brackets 
*■% H.D.Fig.8 Tr'y •*9 Ponj Ins. 
10"Clinch Ear Double Trans- 

10 Feed in ear position Glass 

12 Strain Ears Transposed erery 

2 Feed in per mile 10 poles 
When erecting bracket 
giTe 2 upward lake. 




7*- 



Mileage Post 
White Background 
Black 6"letters 
Miles at top 
Tenths at bottom 



Gravel or Crashed Stone I 



Stone Foot ?t 




^ 



w:^^:::^^-' 



STANDARD INTERURBAN OVERHEAD CONSTRUCTION DETROIT 

UNITED RAILWAY. 



IIG 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



High Tension 

-4 Bare Copper 
»^- 
*^^Galvanized Iron Saddle 




CROSS SECTION OF TRACK AND OVERHEAD CONSTRUCTION — OLEY 
VALLEY RAILWAY^ READING^ PA. 



OVERHEAD OR THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION. 



117 



S^IG.GlassInsulatoM High PotentiaUct 
Cross Arm Braces 3o"x Hif'x %!^? 
f Cfarriage Bolts for Braces i^' x H pLj ■-' 'p 
«, with Washers and Xuts, JS'^^^ 

1 Qla«B Insulator Low Potential "^1^ 

f Machine Bolts for Cross Arms ^ 
} 12J4X 54 with Washers 
' and Nuts. 



^ SJ.G.GlassInauUtorsBlgh 

Potential 

1 Cross Arm. 4 x 5 x 96. 




STANDARD OVERHEAD CONSTRUCTION" WITH CENTER POLES 
BOSTON & WORCESTER RAILWAY. 



118 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECOyOMICS. 

wire at this point, and overliead frogs should be avoided 
as far as possible. This is usually done in single-track roads 
by carrying two trolley wires, one for the cars running in 
each direction. As the current carrjdng capacity in each 
trolley wire is available to supplement the direct-current 
feeders, no extra expense is involved in the two trolley wires 
other than that of the additional hangers. 

The trolley wheel itself should be not less than 6 inches 
in diameter, should contain plenty of material and have a 
groove with a broad base, and the bearings should be espe- 
cially large and self-oiling. Composite trolley wheels, or 
those made up with a copper hub and steel side pieces, have 
been tried for heavy high-speed roads and have been fairly 
satisfactory, but no system of trolley construction has yet 
been devised which will satisfactorily care for cars requir- 
ing an average of 200 or more amperes and running at maxi- 
mum speeds of 50 or more miles per hour. For roads hav- 
ing a ver}^ light equipment as has already been shown, over- 
head trolley system can be installed cheaper than the third- 
rail system. For this class of roads, that is, roads having a 
very light equipment and a relatively great headway, the 
limit of overhead trolley construction has certainly not yet 
been reached. It is entirely probable that in the near future 
some sort of single phase alternating current motor wn'll be 
brought out. With such a motor on the market using po- 
tentials of 2,000 volts or more, the probability is that for 
roads having a light equipment the overhead construction 
will predominate. The matter has, by no means, been 
thrashed out, although considerable comparative data are now 
in existence relating thereto. It is unfortunate that there are 
no reliable comparative data on single phase alternating cur- 
rent motor systems. 

On some of the German 3-phase, high-tension, high-speed 
roads a side overhead contact has been used in which the 
current collectors are aluminum bars grooved on the edge 



OVERHEAD OR THIRD-RAIL CONSTRUCTION 



119 



and filled with grease, and which are held against the wire 
by springs, but the construction has not been adopted in this 



SrrlMre- 









y9 ~\ Sj)ec/if//'/mr C^itti^/f* 




SECTION OF OVERHEAD LINE AND TRACK GRAXD RAPIDS, HOL- 
LAND & LAKE MICHIGAN RAILWAY. 



country, and being especially for the conditions presented 
on those roads will not be considered in this connection. 

In the accompanying pages are sho^vn some standard ex- 
amples of overhead trolley construction in the United States. 



CHAPTER XI. 

POWER STATIONS. 

The location and proper design of the main power station 
for an interurban electric railway, or, in fact, for any elec- 
tric railway, are among the most important factors in 
the resulting economy of operation, and all points bear- 
ing on the subject should be carefully considered before 
any site for the main power station is finally deter- 
mined upon. In approaching this subject the first question 
to be determined is whether an alternating current or a 
direct current distribution should be used. The determina- 
tion of this matter will depend upon a number of circum- 
stances, but generally and principally upon the energy which 
will be required, and the length of the line which will have 
to be served. The economical limit for direct current dis- 
tribution, at the ordinary voltages now generally used for 
direct current distribution, which is from 450 to 550 volts 
at the motors, is from 8 to 10 miles as a maximum, in cases 
of what may be termed ordinary power distribution. As- 
suming, therefore, one direct current power station, located 
at approximately the center of the line, and assuming 
the center of the line to be practically the electrical center 
of gravity of the system, the practical limiting length of line 
which can be economically supplied with direct current will 
be from 16 to 20 miles, that is, 8 to 10 miles on each side 
of the central station. If boosters are used it is possible to 
increase this length somewhat, but boosters are an uneco- 
nomical method of power distribution, and should only be 
employed under exceptional circumstances and for occa- 
sional use, unless the load carried on them is trifling, com- 
pared to the total output of the station. In other words, 
they should only be used in such cases where the total am- 
pere hour output passing through the boosters is small 
compared with the total ampere hour output of the station. 

[120] 



POWER STATIONS. 121 

With alternating current machinery, the limits of economi- 
cal power transmission are greatly increased, and, as a rule, 
alternating current distribution will be found more economi- 
cal for interurban railways exceeding 20 miles in length. It 
is also generally safe to say that alternating current distri- 
bution will be found more economical for lines under 20 
miles in length, w^here the operating conditions demand 
large energy consumption. Before any system of distribu- 
tion is determined upon, and before the final plans for the 
power station or stations are determined upon, careful esti- 
mates should be made of the first cost of construction and 
annual cost of operation, maintenance^ and distribution from 
the single alternating current station and the necessary sub- 
stations, and also for two or more direct current stations 
which would be required to do the same work. In making 
this comparison, the disadvantages of the latter, from an 
investment standpoint, that is, the extra buildings^ greater 
cost of attendance, and greater reserve capacity (as the re- 
serve will have to be distributed between two or more 
stations instead of concentrated in one), should be com- 
pared with the greater initial cost for machinery for the 
alternating current system, due to the transformers and 
other station apparatus, and the various losses through con- 
version on account of the use of the transformers, etc. In this 
comparison, as in all railway or other engineering determina- 
tions, the possibility of future extensions and developments 
should always be borne in mind. The power station will be, 
next to the track, one of the most permanent features of 
the railway system, and the engineer should, consequently, 
formulate his plans, not for the immediate conditions, but 
for those conditions which may properly be expected to de- 
velop during the next 20 or 25 years' life of the enterprise. 

Should direct current distribution be adopted, the import- 
ance of locating the power station near the electrical center 
of gravity of the system is much more important than if 
alternating current distribution be used, and this fact may 



122 ELECTRIC RAIL^YAY ECONOMICS. 

constitute the determining factor in the selection of the sys- 
tem of distribution, on account of the marked distance limi- 
tations of direct current distribution. 

Another factor in interurban railway power distribution 
which should be considered in selecting the type of the 
power station, and one which, however, does not inherently 
affect Ihe economical aspect is the advantage possessed by 
alternating current systems, of maintaining a higher volt- 
age at distant sections of the line, at a relatively low cost. 
With direct current distribution, a long grade or heavily 
loaded cars at one end of the line, or both, will seriously 
affect the speed of the cars, at the point w^hich such grade 
or loaded car or cars happen to be, and may, and generally 
will, radically interfere with the schedules of the road, 
thereby affecting not only the cost of operation, but the 
earning capacity of the proposed system. This fact should 
be considered in connection wdth the selection of the dis- 
tribution system of an interurban railway system. The 
inability to secure and maintain speed on distant sections 
of the line may be, and, in fact, generally is, a far greater 
disadvantage, than a slight difference in the cost of power 
distribution. 

At this point it may also be well to call attention to an- 
other element in favor of the alternating current system 
of distribution, and that is the possibility, at any time, of 
the development of a satisfactory single phase or other al- 
ternating current motor. Should such a motor, at any time, 
come upon the market, an alternating current system would 
have a considerable advantage over a direct current system 
in adapting itself to the new requirements. 

In addition to the matter of economical power distribu- 
tion there is also that important. consideration of economical 
power generation in the selection of the power station and 
location. This will depend largely on two circumstances: 
First, the nearness to a desirable water supply for the feed 
water and condensing apparatus ; and, second, the cost of and 



POWER STATIONS. 123 

the convenience for the receipt of fuel, such as existing rail- 
way or dock facilities. The importance of condensing water 
lies in the fact that the use of condensers will, in some cases, 
decrease the cost of power generation anywhere from 15 to 20 
per cent., if reciprocating steam engines are nsed, and to an 
even greater extent if steam turbines are employed as power 
generators. It is not intended here to advocate the use of 
condensing steam engines wherever and whenever condens- 
ing water can be obtained. There are numerous cases in 
existence, where, on account of the location of power sta- 
tions near coal mines, and on account of the cheapness of 
coal or other fuel, it can readily be sho^\Ti that the installa- 
tion of the high-class condensing steam plants would not 
be either good engineering or economical, for the reason 
that the saving which would be effected in the fuel account 
would be more than offset by the greater aggregate cost 
represented by the sum of the additional fixed charges and 
maintenance of the high-class condensing plants. As a 
general rule, high-class condensing plants should be installed 
where the cost of fuel is relatively high. 

In connection herewith it will not be amiss to call atten- 
tion to one or tw^o of the small details, such as the arrange- 
ments for receiving the fuel. If coal is received by rail, 
either a spur from a steam railroad should be run into or ad- 
joining the boiler-room, or, if the interurban track is suit- 
able for interchange of cars and the haulage of the coal, 
these tracks can be connected with the tracks of some exist- 
ing steam road in the vicinity, and the coal brought by elec- 
tric power directly to the station. In no case should it be 
necessary to break bulk and haul fuel by teams, as the cost 
of labor, incident to the breaking of bulk where such condi- 
tions exist, is always practically a fixed charge against the 
power generation. Other circumstances to be considered in 
the location of the power station are those of nearness to the 
car-houses and general offices of the company, and the prob- 
able sale of current for lighting and power, and exhaust steam 



124 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

for heating purposes. The former are advantages often 
overlooked in power station location. The benefits derived 
consist principally in the accessibility of the power station 
force to repair shop tools for making repairs, the feasibility 
of heating the carhouses and other building with exhaust 
steam from the power station, and the better supervision 
of the entire force by the operating manager. The com- 
mercial value of the ability to sell current for lighting and 
power, or exhaust steam for heating purposes, is one which 
will have to be settled in each individual case. Generally 
speaking, a location w^hich will admit of this will usually 
necessitate a power station site well within the limits of a 
fairly large-sized community, where land is apt to be more 
expensive, and w^here the taxes will certainly be higher than 
out in the country. The determination of this matter will 
consist in balancing the interest on the increased cost of 
real estate and other detail charges and costs, such as taxes, 
construction details, etc., against the probable additional 
revenue which would be derived therefrom. 

Having selected the site of the station, which we will as- 
sume, for the present purposes, is a single alternating current 
station for the entire line, the next question is that of the 
size of the station. 

The proper final determination of the size of station can 
only be arrived at by a detailed study of electric railway 
train sheets and run sheets, such as those shown in the dia- 
grams on Plates I, II, and III of this book. The size of 
station will, of course, vary with the service given, grades, 
etc. According to tests made on the lines of the Union 
Traction Company, an account of which is contained in the 
Street Railway Journal, for October 4, 1902, the average 
power consumption on that line, measured at the car, is 
given as from 75 to 90 watt hours per ton mile for the 
local service, and from 58 to 71 watt hours per ton mile 
for the express service. If the higher figures be taken, and 
assuming a loss of 30 per cent, between the cars and the high 



POWER STATIONS. 125 

potential busbars of the station, we will get a consumption 
of approximately 130 watt hours, and 100 watt hours per 
ton mile in each case. If the equipment consist of 20 40-ton 
cars in the local service, making a schedule of 30 miles pei' 
hour, and 10 express cars of the same weight for the ex- 
press service when making a schedule speed of 50 miles per 
hour, this would give an average demand at the power sta- 
tion of 3,120 kilowatts for the local service, and 2,000 kilo- 
watts for the express service, or a total of 5,120 kilowatts. 
For this class of service, that is, a service operating relatively 
infrequent units, a load factor greater than 60 per cent, 
would probably not be obtained, so that it would be neces- 
sary to install in the power station generating apparatus, 
for a road of this kind, of a capacity of from 8,000 to 10,000 
kilowatts, depending upon the extent to which storage bat- 
teries are employed to equalize the load throughout the 
day. The steam equipment would necessarily have to be 
of a somewhat larger capacity than the electrical apparatus 
to make up for the engine and turbine loss. If we assume 
this at 10 per cent, for an 8,000 kilowatt power sta- 
tion, we require about 12,000 horse power in steam engine 
capacity. 

Various methods have been, from time to time, and arc 
yet employed for the purpose of determining the proper 
location of main power stations, as well as the proper num- 
ber of and location of the various substations where alter- 
nating current transmission is employed. Some of the 
methods are extremely ingenious and interesting. It may 
not be amiss to describe very generally and briefly the 
method followed in determining the location of the main 
power house and the substations for the ^N'ew York & Port 
Chester railroad. 

For this railroad the line was laid out, as surveyed, on a 
sheet of paper to a scale of |-mile to the inch. As the 
total length of the main road is about 25 miles, this gave a 
drawing of about 50 inches in length. On each side of the 



126 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

center line, representing the surveyed line laid out as above 
described, were drawn, to scale, the tracks of the road. As 
the system is designed as a four-track railroad this meant 
two lines on each side of the center line. At the proper place, 
and to scale on this diagram, were located the express and 
local stations, together with the probable location of the 
storage yards and carbarns. A number of small pieces of 
cardboard were then cut out to represent the train units of 
the system. Various energy determinations, relating to dif- 
ferent conditions of operation of the system, were then made 
as follows: 

First. A determination w^as made as to the amount and dis- 
tribution of the load which would occur during the times of 
maximum service. To do this reference was had to the graphi- 
cal schedules or train sheets, and especially to the one repre- 
senting the total train movement (see p. 40). From these 
train sheets data was obtained which enabled the placing of 
the small strips of cardboard, representing the train units, at 
their proper places upon the express and local tracks as 
drawn. From the train sheets information was also at once 
obtained as to the operating condition of each and every 
train unit. By reference then to the proper run sheet, the 
energy consumption of each train unit, a& located on the 
diagram of the road as above described, was at once ascer- 
tained. That is, the train sheet, in conjunction with the run 
sheet, enable us to indicate, at the position of each car or train 
unit, as shown on the diagram, the exact location and amount 
of energy consumption of that car or train unit, which, of 
course, would vary depending upon the position of the unit 
upon the road, that is, whether it was at a station, starting out 
from a station, or running between two stations, as well as 
whether the unit consisted of one car or three or more 
cars. The energy consumption of each unit was then 
written along side of that unit, after which the elec- 
trical center of gravity for the system, with the given load- 
ing, was determined. The process followed in this deter- 
mination is like that which would, ordinarily, be followed 



POWER STATIONS. 127 

in ascertaining any mechanical center of gravity for a sys- 
tem of distributed loads. Ten or more of these determina- 
tions were made and the electrical center of gravity for 
each determination, representing collectively the dilt'erent 
conditions of light, average, and maximum loads, ascer- 
tained and noted on the sheet. It should be borne 
in mind here that it may be very improper to as- 
sume for the proper location of the main power-house 
a point, obtained by taking the conditions and making the 
determinations during the hours of maximum service, in 
such cases where the average load, throughout the day, is 
fairly heavy and uniform, and the maximum load maintained 
but a relatively short time throughout the 24 hours, and 
where the electrical center of gravity obtained by consider- 
ing the average load differed considerably from that ob- 
tained by reference to the maximum load alone. 

After various points representing the electrical center of 
gravity, for different conditions of loading of the system of 
the 'New York & Port Chester Railroad Company lines had 
been determined, a point was finally settled upon by 
considering three or four points representing average maxi- 
mum conditions. This process is again similar to that of 
obtaining the mechanical center of gravity of any system, 
by considering a system of weights distributed at a number 
of points, and thus obtaining the mechanical center of grav- 
ity for the system of weights. The point so determined upon 
for the ^N'ew York & Port Chester Railroad Company gave 
a main power-house location well within the limits of a city 
where real estate was relatively high, and where it would 
not be possible easily and cheaply to obtain the water 
requisite for the condensing prime movers. After further 
investigation a point was selected at a distance approximately 
a mile away from the center above referred to. It then 
remained to determine the relative cost, all factors consid- 
ered, of operating and maintaining these two stations. Por 
the point determined upon as the theoretical point well within 
the limits of a large population center it would have been 



12S ELECTRIC RAIL^^AY ECONOMICS. 

necessary to expend considerable money in bringing water 
to the power-house. Arrangements would also have to have 
been made to get the fuel to the power-house. It was 
also at once apparent that on account of the size of this 
main station, which would require about 20,000 horse 
power of boilers, the boilers would have to be placed in 
tiers. The interest on the cost of the station located 
at the point theoretically determined upon w^as then ascer- 
tained, together mth the additional cost of bringing the 
water to the station, as well as the cost of making 
proper arrangements to receive the fuel. On the other 
hand, the cost of locating the station on a water front, 
the alternate plan under consideration, with the cost of pro- 
viding proper docking facilities for the fuel, the cost 
of the additional length of the transmission lines, and 
the annual cost of transmitting the required energy over the 
additional distance were ascertained, and the sum total of 
these costs was compared with the sum total of the costs 
obtained for the theoretically proper point. The results 
showed a balance in favor of the station located on the 
water front. I regret that commercial and other considera- 
tions are such at the present time that I cannot publicly in- 
dicate the location of these two points, and thereby better 
illustrate the determinations. I think, however, the process 
above described Avill illustrate a methodical way of approach- 
ing and solving problems connected \vith the location of 
central power stations. 

The roadway having already been divided up into sections, 
the matter of the location of the substations was approached 
in the same manner, by obtaining the most advantageous 
point after considering different conditions of loading of 
the sections which would occur at different hours of the 
day. We finally determined upon three substations. 

Before all this had been done computations had been 
made upon the first cost and the cost of maintenance and 
transmission of two large direct current stations. The com- 
putations indicated, at a very early stage of their progress, 



POWER STATIO^^S. 129 

that recourse would have to be had to the alternating current 
system of transmission. The determinations to use the al- 
ternating current system was further influenced by the con- 
viction that the day of the commercial alternating current 
motor is not far ofl", as well as by the fact that other systems 
with which the company will probably have business rela- 
tions were compelled to use the alternating current system 
of transmission. 

The load diagram for each of the substations as well as for 
the main station should be prepared by having recourse to the 
train sheets above referred to, and the run sheets. Another 
blank sheet, similar to that used for the train sheets, or the 
run sheets, is taken, and the energy consumption of each 
run projected on this new sheet to scale. That is, if the 
length of the run as represented on the train sheet between 
termini is 2 inches, then the energy consumption for each 
run reduced to that scale is projected on to this new sheet. 
Each of the individual runs are superimposed upon the 
one preceding it, or graphically added to it, and each 
commenced at its proper place on the sheet. This process 
will give a scientifically accurate load diagram, from which 
the details of the substations and main power station, such 
as size and number of units and size of storage batteries, if 
their use be determined upon, are ascertained. 

The question of the size and number of units for any 
given total capacity of station is an interesting one, and one 
which must be determined in each individual case. An in- 
spection of a number of power stations, now in operation, 
would indicate that, at the present time, a division of units 
approximately, as follows, is being used: 

V Kw. Required. Units in Use. Units in Reserve. 

1,000 2—500 1 — 500 

2,000 3—800 1 — 500 

3,000 4—800 1—800 



5,000 



P- 800 f i_i50O 
i 3 — 1500 ) 

7,000 2 — 3500 1 — 3500 

10,000 3 — 3500 1—3500 

9 



130 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

For purposes of information, I have appended herewith a 
table showing the results of the investigations of Dr. Chas. 
E. Emery, and giving' the comparativ^e cost of producing 
power bv the use of different types of reciprocating steam, en- 
gines. This table is of value and interest. Personally, I 
believe, it will very soon be superseded by the data which 
will be produced on account of the use of steam turbines. 

It is not the writer's intention to discuss in detail the 
proper design of an electric railway power plant; but a few 
suggestions on the main features of the plant may be consid- 
ered in this connection. 

The building should be of fire-proof construction. It is 
usually of brick, with steel trusses, and with wooden roof, 
covered with tar and gravel, and provision should always be 
made for a traveling crane spanning the engine-room, for 
use not only in installing engines and generators, but for 
convenience in lofting heavy parts so as to get at the 
machinery in case repairs are necessary. Plenty of room 
should be provided around the different units for ease and 
safety in inspection, and to permit the removal of piston rods, 
if necessary, without lifting the cylinder from its founda- 
tions. It is also advisable to so design the building that ex- 
tensions to it can easily be made without interfering with the 
general schenie of the plant. 

Where real estate is valuable, the boilers are sometimes 
located over the engines, but in most interurban power plants 
it will be found entirely practicable to install them in an 
adjoining bay, separated from the engine-room by a brick 
wall. As the engines must necessarily be at a higher level 
than the condensers, if condensers are used, so as to prevent 
the water of condensation setting back into the cylinders, 
the engine floor is usually elevated 8 or 10 feet above the 
ground level in preference to installing condensers in a pit. 
The construction, however, depends upon the height of the" 
condensers above the level of the water to be used for con- 
densing purposes. 



POWER STA^PIOSS. 



131 



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132 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

Commencing, first, with tlie steam generating part of the 
equipment, boilers can be broadly divided into two classes, 
fire-tube and water-tube boilers. As far as safety is con- 
cerned, the water-tube boiler is, of course, superior to the 
fire-tube type; they are also quicker in steaming (an im- 
portant advantage where fluctuating loads such as are en- 
countered in railway work are concerned), and they are much 
preferable when the pressures are as high as 150 pounds. 
Fire-tube boilers, particularly return tubular boilers, are less 
expensive in first cost, and w^hen internally fired are probably 
as economical as water-tube boilers, if not more so; but for 
the reasons already mentioned^ water-tube boilers are used 
almost exclusively. In all cases the boilers and their fur- 
naces should be designed to suit the kind of coal to be em- 
ployed, as some coals require more grate surface than others. 
As all boilers have to be cleaned, and as they have to be 
cleaned frequently when scale-producing feed-water is used, 
it is always desirable to have 1 or 2 batteries of boilers in 
excess of those actually needed for operating the plant. 

The type of engine to be adopted depends mainly upon two 
factors, the size of the unit and the cost of fuel. The latter 
consideration affects the choice, from the fact that it would 
be manifestly absurd to purchase an expensive and highly 
efficient engine for a plant where fuel is very cheap. 

Where an engine is used only occasionally, as in case of a 
booster engine, or one to carry the peak of the load, it is 
not necessary to have so efficient, and hence so costly a 
machine as where the engine is intended for continuous run- 
ning. In all electric railway work it is desirable to have an 
engine Avhich can take fairly easily an overload, without great 
loss of economy, and also an engine which will regulate 
closely in speed. The speed regulation is usually specified 
to be within 2 per cent, between full load and no load. 

The piping should be designed, so that if any condensation 
occurs the water will flow in the direction in which the steam 
is moving, and will then be caught in traps or separators be- 



POWER STATIONS. 133 

fore it can enter the cylinders. Stations are often provided 
with a duplicate set of piping so that if any portion of the 
piping gets out of order it will not involve a shutting down 
of part of the station. This plan does not necessarily in- 
volve parallel lines of main and branch piping, as the boiler 
and engine piping can be arranged on a ring or loop system 
so that the steam can flow in either one direction or an- 
other as required. Some of the latest power stations, how- 
ever, are not arranged on this plan, but are fitted with what 
is known as the '' individual-unit " system, by which a cer- 
tain set of boilers is normally used only for generating 
steam for a certain engine, but by cross-connections in the 
boiler-room, steam from other batteries of boilers can be 
utilized for this engine, if desired. 

The condensers may be either of the jet, surface, or siphon 
type. The two former require an air pump, and the jet con- 
denser is the one most generally used. It requires a much 
smaller surface than the surface condenser, and is much less 
costly. The only advantage which the surface condenser 
possesses over the jet condenser is that as the condensed 
steam does not come into contact with the circulating water, 
the steam when condensed can be used again in the boilers. 
The difficulties in the way of the removal of the cylinder 
oil from the discharged steam, either before or after it is 
condensed, are so great, however, that surface condensers are 
not generally employed in power stations. But with the in- 
troduction of steam turbines where no lubrication is required 
in the steam chambers, surface condensers will undoubtedly 
come into more general favor. In the siphon condensers 
the steam is led to a point about 34 feet above the surface 
of the water in the hot well, and is there mingled with the 
circulating water and condensed, producing a vacuum. 

Feed-water heaters are used to heat the water fed to the 
boilers, and utilize for this purpose the exhaust steam from 
the engine or auxiliaries before it is led to the condenser. 
They form a necessary part of the economical equipment of 



134 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

a power station. In some cases two sets of feed-water heat- 
ers are used — primary heaters for utilizing steam from the 
engines, and the secondary, steam from the pumps. From 
the heaters the feed water is often led to economizers, which 
consist of nests of tubes surrounding the flues at the base 
of the stack. 

Draft is provided either by a chimney or mechanically by 
fans. Mechanical draft possesses many advantages over 
natural draft, of which the most important is that the draft 
can be regulated according to the needs of the furnaces. In 
some stations natural draft is depended upon for all times, 
except to care for the peak of the load, when the capacity 
of the stacks is increased by running the fans. 

The cost of the main power station will vary from $78 to 
$133 per rated kilowatt capacity of the station, divided as 
follows : 

TABLE XII. 
Reciprocating Steam Engine Poiver-Station Costs Per Kiloioatt. 

No. Item. Maximum. Minimum. 

1. Buildings $15 00 $8 00 

2. Foundations 3 50 1 50 

3. Boilers and settings 17 00 9 00 

4. Steam piping and covering, etc 12 00 4 00 

5. Engines 32 00 20 00 

6. Generators 21 00 18 00 

7. Pumps, etc 100 100 

8. Switchboards, etc 4 00 1 50 

9. Feed-water heaters, etc 2 00 1 00 

10. Wiring conduits, wiring, etc 6 GO 3 GO 

11. Coal conveyors, and coal storage tanks 6 00 2 00 

12. Smoke-stack and flues 2 00 1 00 

13. Fuel economizers 4 50 2 50 

14. Stokers 3 00 2 50 

15. Ash conveyors 1 50 1 00 

16. Incidentals, such as concrete flooring, etc... 2 00 2 GO 



$132 50 $78 GO 



A fair average cost for kilowatt will be between $100 and $110. 



POWER STATIOyS. 135 

The cost of an installation, using steam turbines as prime 
m.iovers, at the present time is about 70 per cent, of the maxi- 
mum costs above given and probably will be much less than 
this within a few years. The manifold advantages of a tur- 
bine installation are too apparent to require much explana- 
tion. In the order of their importance they may be summed 
up as follows : 

1. Simplicity. 

2. Marked economy in fuel consumption over the recipro- 
cating steam engine. 

3. Lower cost of operation and maintenance. 

4. Less floor space and consequently less real estate re- 
quired. 

5. Lower initial cost. 

6. High efficiency over a wide range of loads. 

The cost of substations using rotary converters will vary 
from $45 per kilowatt as a maximum to $38 per kilowatt as 
a minimum, including the building and wiring, etc. 

The cost of the electrical conducting circuits will vary 
between $1,000 per mile of track for light traffic roads and 
$3,500 per mile of track for fairly heavy service. This is 
based upon a high voltage alternating current main station 
with high voltage transmission to the substations, and about 
GOO volts at the rail. 

The cost of the passenger stations will depend entirely 
upon the disposition of the railroad company and may be 
anywhere from $1,500 to $20,000 per station. 

The diagrams on Plates YII, YIII, and IX show wiring de- 
tails of several stations in actual existence. There is shown 
the wiring diagram of a main alternating high-tension gen- 
erating station, together with the wiring diagram of a substa- 
tion receiving alternating current at high potential and trans- 
forming such alternating current by means of rotary con- 
verters to low tension direct current, after which it is sent 
out to the trolley wire or third rail, as herein described. 



CHAPTER XII. 

STORAGE BATTERIES. 

Storage batteries have, during the last few years, been 
used to an increasing extent in the equipment of electric gen- 
erating stations and substations, more especially in cases 
where the electric load is subject to fluctuations and 
variations. 

A comprehensive discussion and complete analysis of the 
considerations which enter into the determination of the 
size of battery installed, and the details of its operation, etc., 
would require more space than can be devoted here to these 
points. Many interesting and valuable articles, by special- 
ists in storage battery engineering, have been made public 
at different times in technical periodicals and publications. 
The battery manufacturers, especially the Electric Storage 
Battery Company, have also compiled and issued much valu- 
able information on this subject. 

I shall confine myself to a summary indication of the 
principal applications and uses of storage batteries. 

The advantages of storage batteries depend, primarily, 
upon the fact that they enable the energy to be expended at 
a different time from the time at which the said energy is 
generated ; moreover, owing to the fact that they render the 
time of the output independent of the time of the produc- 
tion of energy, they incidentally render the rate of the out- 
put independent of the rate of the production, since they 
can supplement either the generators or the load. 

The utility of the storage battery in a specific case may 
hinge on either or both of two things : Eirst, its total ca- 
pacity as a reservoir of energy; second, the maximum rate 
of charge and discharge which it can withstand. 

In some cases it is the first of these qualities that is most 
essential and useful; in other cases it is the second only, 
while there are cases in which both qualities are desirable. 

[136] 



STORAGE BATTERIES. 



137 



These points can be easily and clearly shown by means of 
the accompanying load diagrams, for which I am indebted 
to the Electric Storage Battery Company. 

In the engraving on this page, the irregular line represents 
a load diagram, such as is characteristic of an ordinary cen- 
tral electric generating station. It is well known that in such 
stations the load falls down to its lowest point in the early 



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LIGHTING BATTERY CARRYING PEAK ON EDISON THREE-AYIRE 

SYSTEM. 

morning hours, and that the heaviest load occurs in the after- 
noon and early evening hours. In such cases a storage bat- 
tery fulfills an important function, by enabling the load on 
the plant to be increased during the early morning hours. 
The shaded area in that portion of the diagram, represent- 
ing the time interval between midnight and Y a. m., rep- 
resents the amount of energy that is expended in charging 
the batteries during that period. 

iln the particular case represented, the battery was al- 
lowed to discharge so as to supplement the generating plant, 



188 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



when the load increased between 8 and 9 a. m., but it was 
again charged for a short time between 9 and 10 a. m. At 
the time of the heavy load, namely, between 5 and 10 p. m., 
the battery was made to discharge, so as to take care of the 
" peak '' of the load, as clearly indicated by the heavily- 
shaded area in the diagram. 

In the diagram below we have a similar condition, illus- 
trating the use of a storage battery at a railway power-house, 



6000 




::::::;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;;::%:::::»:::::::::!:::::::::::;;:::: 
:::::::::::::;: :::::::::;::i::::::::::::::;::::;:::.'::3::::g?::::::::::;::;;;:::::::;:::j:i::: 



;>;:::::::::):::::::::::::::r;;:j:i 




7.£U(L a 



BATTERY AT RAILWAY POWER-HOUSE TAKING LOAD. POWER 
DERIVED PARTLY FROM STEAM UNITS^ PARTLY FROM WATER 
POWER THROUGH ROTARIES. 

for the purpose of taking care of the larger '' peaks " of the 
load, and also of equalizing the smaller and more frequent 
changes of the load, represented by the smaller ^^ peaks '^ or 
waves in the diagram. It will be seen that in this case the load 
on the generating plant, between 7 a. m. and Y: 30 p. m., was 
maintained uniformly at 4,150 amperes. As the actual load 
between 7 a. m. and 9:15 a. m. was much higher than 4,150 
amperes, being most of this time above 5,000 amperes, the 



STORAGE BATTERIES. 139 

battery was allowed to discharge during that time so as to 
" peak " the load, as indicated by the heavily-shaded area in 
the corresponding portion of the diagram. About 9:15 a. m. 
the load had decreased to a point where it became less than 
4,150 amperes, and it continued below 4,150 amperes until 
5 p. M. During this period the battery was allowed to 
charge, the energy stored in the battery being indicated by 
the lightly-shaded area in that portion of the diagram. Be- 
tween 5 and 6 : 40 p. m. the battery was again allowed to 
discharge, so as to " peak '' the load, which reached a maxi- 
mum of 5,300 amperes. Between 6 : 40 and 7:30 p. m. the 
battery was again allowed to charge. At 7 : 30 the generating 
capacity was reduced to 2,800 amperes, the storage battery 
being allowed to discharge so as to take care of the excess 
of the load above 2,800 amperes. Shortly after 9 p. m. the 
load fell below 2,800 amperes, and the battery was again 
allowed to charge. The load was m-aintained constant at 
2,800 amperes until midnight, at which time the total load 
was allowed to decrease, this being done to prevent charg- 
ing the battery at an excessive rate. At 1 a. m., the battery 
being fully charged, it was cut out, and the generating plant 
was run at a low^er output, ranging between 500 and 700 
amperes. The battery was again put on for charging at 
5 : 30 A. M., so as to give a total load of 2,800 amperes on 
the generating plant, this load being maintained constant 
until about 7 a. m., notwithstanding the rise in the external 
load; the difference between the power generated and that 
required for the load being made up by allowing the battery 
to discharge so as to carry the " peak,'' as indicated by the 
heavily-shaded area of the corresponding portion of the 
diagram. 

The load curves thus far considered show changes of load 
which lasted a considerable portion of time; the larger 
" peak " in the first diagram lasted over five hours, and the 
two larger '^ peaks " in the second lasted each one hour or 
more. In each case the shaded portion, representing charge 



140 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

or discharge, according to the case, is a measure of the total 
amount of energy which was charged into, or discharged 
out of, the battery. The height of the shaded portion at 
its highest point represents the maximum rate at which 
the energy was charged or discharged. It is found in prac- 
tice that the proportion of the " peak " for which the battery 
can furnish the current in discharging depends upon the 
maximum rate of discharge which the battery is able to 
withstand. This maximum rate, itself, in turn depends upon 
the length of time during which the discharge is required. 

This brings us to the consideration of changes of load 
of another kind, namely, the very sudden and severe, but 
brief, instantaneous changes of load, which are usually desig- 
nated by the term " fluctuations.*' These fluctuations, as is 
well known, are due to the sudden starting and stopping of 
cars, and the consequent variations in the current required 
by the different cars. It is found that the number of these 
fluctuations increases while their severity decreases with the 
number of cars. This means that the range or extreme limit 
attained by the fluctuations varies in some inverse propor- 
tion with the number of cars in operation. In the case of a 
small line, the fluctuations are very marked. There may be 
times when the generators are running practically without 
load for a few seconds, while a few seconds later they may 
be greatly overloaded. In order to appreciate these varia- 
tions in the load, the load line would have to be plotted 
according to a larger scale of time values. 

In the cut on p. 141, the solid line shows the load diagram 
obtained at an electric substation furnishing current for an 
electric railroad system. In this case the readings were taken 
every five seconds, and the diagram reproduces the corre- 
sponding values. The dotted line represents the load imposed 
upon the generators, the current being, in this case, gen- 
erated by rotary converters. It would seem that while the 
mean load, as indicated by the dotted line, was a trifle over 
200 amperes, the actual line-load fluctuated between 60 and 



STORAGE BATTERIES. 



141 



630 amperes. It will be noticed that the most severe fluctu- 
ations are of very brief duration. In such a case, the rate 
of charge and discharge that would be allowable in the bat- 
tery would be very much greater than would be allowable 
if the fluctuation, instead of lasting a few seconds, were to 
extend through several minutes, or were to constitute a 
'' peak " as large and lasting as long as those shown in the 
two previous diagrams. In cases such as those just referred 
to, a large storage capacity is of very great importance. 




lO.5iA.l1 



S Stcttwd RttAioas tnKtn M»r.50.iq0t 



EAILWAY BATTERY AT ROTARY SUBSTATION TAKIXG FLUCTUA- 
TIONS. 

because the amount of energy stored and the length of time 
during which it is to remain stored are both large, whereas 
in cases where the fluctuations are brief and numerous, even 
though they are severe, the storage capacity required is rela- 
tively small and the battery serves, merely, so to speak, as 
a means of transferring a portion of the load from one 
instant of time to another instant of time relatively close to 
it. At one moment it gives out energy to supplement the 
generators and to ^' peak " a certain fluctuation, due to a 
sudden rise in the line current, while at the next moment 
it may absorb current, owing to the fact that the load on the 



142 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



line has suddenly fallen below tlie average generator load. 
A battery working under those conditions is said to serve 
as a regulator or equalizer. It has also been said to be 
equivalent to an electrical ^' ballast " or electrical " fly- 
wheel." The term " buffer-batteries " has also been used in 
Europe to designate batteries which are used as regulators 
or equalizers in this manner. 



4 

< 100 

X 

O jg 

m 
u 

§ 

2 
< 

s 



s 




tAiftlwW/^t/^ /1^f^^i^/^'H''VJv^^ \P 



CURVE SHOWING 



:URRENT SURPLIEO BY ROTARY 



ST 



^u^-k^ 



CURVES SHOWING REGULATING EFFECT OF STORAGE BATTERIES. 



The regulating effect of the battery will be more clearly 
understood by reference to the diagram on this page, in which 
are shown separately, first, the curve (middle line) showing 
the total current consumed on the electric line; second, the 
current curve of the battery, drawn with respect to the line 
of zero current, the portions above said line being charges 
and the portions below said line being discharges of current ; 
third, the curve (lowest line) showing the current sup- 



STORAGE BATTERIES. 143 

plied by the rotary converter. It is seen that the battery 
curve follows very closely the load curve. The generator 
curve clearlv indicates that the fluctuations of load have but 
little effect upon the generator load, which, in this case, 
does not vary more than 25 amperes above or below the 
mean load, notwithstanding the fact that the fluctuations 
represent a range of nearly 300 amperes between the ex- 
tremes of fluctuation. 

Economy in cost of producing electric power requires that 
attention be given to two important points. First, that the 
machinery should work as many hours and as fully loaded 
as possible; second, that it should work as efficiently as 
possible. 

The first point is related to the initial outlay required for 
the generating plant, it being readily apparent that if a 
given total output in hp or kw hours can be produced by 
a smaller plant, the initial investment mil be less than if 
a larger plant were to be used. Referring again to the cut 
on p. 137, it can be seen that if it were not for the battery 
the generating plant would have to be of sufficient capacity 
to carry 30,000 amperes, merely because the load reaches 
that limit for a short period of time amounting to less than 
one hour during each twentv-four hours. On the other 
hand, with the use of a storage battery capable of furnish- 
ing current for a " peak '' of the load, the maximum gener- 
ating capacity required, as shown by the diagram, would 
not exceed 24,000 amperes. 

In a case, such as sho"\\Ti in the cut on p. 137, the battery 
itself, of course, represents a certain initial outlay, which, 
if the battery had not been installed, could have been ex- 
pended for additional generators; consequently the advan- 
tage of the storage battery would be doubtful if it served no 
other useful purpose than that of ^' peaking " the load. This 
is more especially the case since, in all probability, the bat- 
tery for carrying a load " peak," such as shown in the first 
diagram, would cost more than the generating capacity re- 



144 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

quisite for carrjdng the same ^' peak.'' The battery, how- 
ever, subserves additional purposes. This brings to our at- 
tention the second point, namely, the importance of operating 
the plant at maximum efficiency. It is well known that there 
is, for each generating unit, a certain definite load, at which 
the said unit operates the most efficiently, the total cost of 
power per unit being higher per hp or per kw when the 
load is made either greater or less than this definite load. 
In the case of fiuctuating loads the falling off in efficiency 
is very considerable. It is especially in such cases that the 
storage battery has been found capable of rendering good 
and effective service. In a case, such as is shown in the 
second diagram (p. 138), where the introduction of storage 
batteries enables the load to be maintained at a substantially 
uniform point during the greater portion of the working 
day, it becomes possible to operate the generating units in 
such manner as to obtain a relatively higher efficiency than 
would be the case without the battery. The result of this 
improved efficiency would be manifested in the reduction 
of fuel, supplies, and other items entering into the cost of 
power. 

Since there is a certain percentage of the energy gen- 
erated that is lost in the storage battery itself, however, it is 
evident that the total benefit from the improvement of the 
generator efficiency is not obtained by the use of a storage 
battery. Making allowance, however, for the energy lost in 
the battery and for the extra amount of energy that would 
have to be generated for a given electric train service, in 
consequence of this loss, it may happen, and it frequently 
does happen, that the total cost of the power required for a 
given ser^ace is still lower than would be the case without 
the battery. 

From the standpoint of maximum economy and of lowest 
cost of electric current production, the important question 
is whether the savings effected by the use of a storage bat- 
tery are greater than the losses incidental to its use. As 



STORAGE BATTERIES. 145 

a matter of fact there would be no economic advantage re- 
sulting from the use of a storage battery if the total cost 
per unit of current generated, including all fixed charges 
and operating expenses, were not brought down to a lower 
figure with a storage battery than without it, so as to rep- 
resent a certain margin of profit or saving. 

The considerations which I have just outlined constitute 
the criteria by means of which the applicability of storage 
batteries to different cases is gauged, and by means of which 
the size or importance of a storage battery equipment in 
these cases is determined. There are many cases where 
storage batteries have been introduced either in electric gen- 
erating stations or in electric substations with substantial 
and satisfactory economic results. There are other cases, 
however, where they would not have been introduced or 
retained if economy were the only criterion. This brings 
us to consider another function of storage batteries as sup- 
plemental portions of electric generating stations and sub- 
stations, namely, their use for the purpose of diminishing 
the chances of interruption and the losses incidental thereto, 
in other words, their value as an additional factor of safety 
or as an element of insurance against interruption and de- 
rangement in the electric current supply. 

It is unfortunately difficult to estimate in terms of money 
the value of storage batteries as a factor of reliability or as 
a preventive of interruptions, for the reason that this value 
depends upon the frequency, character, and duration of the 
interruptions, and the financial losses which result there- 
from, which the storage battery may serve to obviate. In 
some cases storage batteries in central stations have been 
the means of preventing serious and very costly breakdowns 
and interruptions of service. It is a fact worth noting, that 
storage batteries now form an important portion of the 
equipment of many important central stations furnishing 
current for lighting and power, and that they also have been 
introduced in a large number of stations and electric sub- 

10 



146 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

I 

stations furnisliing current for electric railway service. 
The opinion has been expressed by certain central station 
engineers and managers that storage batteries were indis^ 
pensable portions of a generating station equipment and are 
worth what they cost, on account of the extra safeguard and 
reserve which they represent. In cases where they also in- 
cidentally increase the station economy, their introduction 
is all the more warranted; but even if they did not show 
economic results of themselves their introduction would, in 
the opinion of these engineers, be still warranted as addi- 
tional factors of safety and as reserve for breakdowns and 
emergencies. In electric railroad work the prospects are 
better that storage batteries will have an economic value 
in addition to their other value as insurance or reser^^e. The 
reason for this is that a very much smaller storage capacity 
may yet suffice to produce an important result in ballasting 
or equalizing the generator load, thereby producing an in- 
crease in the efficiency of the generating plant. The im- 
provement in efficiency will, of course, depend upon and will 
be governed by the peculiar specific conditions of each case. 
The introduction of storage batteries in electric substa- 
tions has been found of benefit and of utility in another way, 
namely, in enabling important savings to be made in the 
cost of the feeder line as well as in the feeder loss. This is 
an immediate result of the fact that the load of the rotary 
converters is equalized and that the current transmitted 
from the generating to the receiving station is nearly con- 
ptant. With fluctuating loads the same amount of energy 
is transmitted in a manner which causes a much greater 
average drop, the consequence being that either the amount 
and the cost of copper must be increased or else the loss of 
energy in the line will be greater. Incidentally, the storage 
battery is an advantage in such cases by enabling a much 
more uniform voltage to be maintained over the portion of 
the system which is supplied from the substation. In many 
cases these considerations would have been sufficient to jus- 



STORAGE BATTERIES. 147 

tify the introdiiction of storage batteries in electric sub- 
stations, even without the incidental economic results. 

It is well nigh impossible, in the present state of our 
knowledge, to lay down general rules by means of which it 
may be possible to answer all questions concerning the ap- 
plicability of storage batteries to a given case, regarding the 
size required, the cost, etc. These questions can only be 
answered by a careful special study of all the factors and 
conditions which enter into each individual case. 



CHAPTEK XIII. 

MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 

Judging by past practices, experiences, and results, it 
would appear that the all-important details relating to the 
selection of the motor equipments and rolling-stock for 
interurban and other electric railway systems were those 
which received the least consideration from railway engi- 
neers and experts. In view of the fact that these are, in 
general, the determining functions of not only the earn- 
ing capacity of any system, but of the costs of operation 
as well, it certainly would seeim that engineers should 
recognize the necessity for, and devote the most painstaking 
study, application, and efforts to the personal consideration 
of these details. I know of cases where railway companies 
having determined upon the use of electricity as a motive 
power and having intrusted their affairs to civil engineers 
there have appeared specifications clearly showing that the 
subjects of electric motor performance as related to schedule 
speeds and weights were sealed books to the authors of the 
specifications. 

Generally speaking, it is not only poor engineering but 
absurd to determine a route between given termini, and then 
prepare a most elaborate set of specifications relating to the 
construction of the permanent way, stations, and other civil 
engineering details and then blindly specify that ^^ the 
schedule speed of the train units shall he — miles per hour, 
allowing — seconds for stops at stations ^ It is unfortu- 
nately true that men practicing as electrical engineers are 
often guilty of this offense, to characterize it mildly. 

While it is true that high-speed railways are now 
economic imperatives in and around large commercial centers 
of population, it should never be forgotten that very high 
schedule speeds with frequent stops are expensive, and, 
therefore, only warranted in special cases. The schedule 

[148] 



MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 149 

speed affects not only the cost of the motor equipment, but 
also that of the main generating station, transmission sys- 
tem, and substations. For this reason the matter of the 
proper schedule speed should always be carefully and ex- 
haustively investigated and determined before it is an- 
nounced. 

The scientific method of procedure consists in first making 
a rough preliminary determination by assuming the line to be 
straight and level and the stations or stops at equal distances 
apart. By assuming certain safe and practically standard 
data, such as tractive effort, braking effort, time of stops, and 
train friction, and having the distance between stations, a set 
of roughly approximate speed time, distance time, and energy 
curves, can be calculated and therefrom approximations ob- 
tained of the energy which will be required to maintain vari- 
ous resulting schedules, and therefrom a set of approximate 
conditions selected upon which to base the determination of an 
accurate set of speed-time and energy curves in the construc- 
tion of which are considered and represented and determined 
the influence of all the details of alignment, gradients, and 
stops of the line as surveyed. The engravings on pages 150 
and 151, taken from Mr. A. H. Armstrong's paper read at 
the fifteenth annual meeting of the American Institute of 
Electrical Engineers, are representations of such first or pre- 
liminary approximations. I recommend the study of 
Mr. Armstrong's paper above referred to, and also the paper 
entitled " ^N'otes on the Plotting of Speed-Time Curves," by 
Mr. C. O. Mailloux, read at the nineteenth annual meeting of 
the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, for detailed 
information relative to some of the details of the processes 
and considerations involved in such determinations. 

Two or three accurate total run sheets, for runs in both 
directions between termini, should be constructed before 
attempting to arrive at a conclusion as to the most economic 
schedule to adopt. Plates T, II, and III show examples of 
sections of total runs or individual runs, between two sta- 



150 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY EC0N03IICS. 



tions, of such accurate determinations, made in connection 
with the development of the engineering details of the ITew 
York & Port Chester Railroad already referred to. 

Such curves also give valuable information relating to 
the proper gearing of any given equipment for the work 



1- 
































Ul 
UJ 

u. 


28 










1 


■^ 


















UJ 

o 


26 










/ 








^^ 


^ 










< 


24 








1 


1 

3PEE 


)-TlV 


E 
















o 
2000 


22 






























1800 


20 






1 


1 






















1600 


















DIST 


\NCE 


-TIME 


A 


^ \ 






1400 


16 £ 

Q. 






1 














A 






\ 




1200 


_l 




/ 














/ 








\ 




1000 


12 




/ 












A 










\ 




800 


10 


/ 


/ 










/ 












\ 




600 


8 


/ 










/ 
















\ 


400 


6 


/ 








[/ 


















\ 


200 


/ 






y 






















\ 




/. 




^ 


^ 






















\ 



60 



70 



13 SO 3U 40 50 

TIME IN SECONDS 

TYPICAL KUN CUEVE. 



it will be called upon to do. Generally speaking, it will 
be found that motors should be geared for the lowest maxi- 
mum speed, allowing a fair margin for occasional required 
increases due to the necessity of making up lost time, for 
the making of the required schedule. A gear ratio giving 
an unnecessarily high speed not only overheats the motors, 



MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 



151 



but produces unnecessarily great demands upon the trans- 
mission system and the generating and substations. 

In determining upon a schedule, not only must the mat- 
ter of motor heating be considered as affected by different 
rates of acceleration, but there must also be considered and 



3^ 
30 
































28 


■ 








I 


I 


















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> 


C 


^^^^>^ 














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20 5 
o 
I 

18 a: 

UJ 
Q. 

16 2 

_j 

14^ 










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H 

111 






1 




















\ 




12 


7 Q- 

1- 






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1 










10 


6^ 

1 




\ 


























\ 














8 


5^ 
2^ 


/ 


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6 


4 

a 


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\ 


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2 


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b 


















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10 20 30 40 

TIME IN SECONDS 



50 



60 



ro 



TYPICAL CURVES SHOWING DIFFERENT ENERGY CONSUMPTIONS 
FOR THE DIFFERENT WAYS OF RUNNING A GIVEN DISTANCE 
IN A GIVEN TIME. 

determined the matters of the line fluctuations together with 
those of energy, input 'and station loads. While rapid accel- 
erations effect marked energy savings it is entirely possible 



152 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

to wipe out any advantage so obtained on account of the 
poorer boiler^ engine, and generator economies due to irregu- 
lar load curves and low power factors. 

Table III, on page 50, of this volume shows, strikingly, 
the relations existing between schedule speed, stops per 
mile, and corresponding energy consumption. In the face 
of the conditions shoAvn in that table it is difficult to imagine 
why the matter of schedule speeds has been handled so 
recklessly by engineers and promoters inaugurating new en- 
terprises. Don't make any public or other promises or state- 
ments about the schedules which will be maintained until 
the matter for the special case in hand has been thoroughly 
investigated and scientifically determined, even if it is found 
necessary to retain somebody competent and experienced 
enough to make the necessary determinations scientifically 
and accurately. Such determinations embody not only a 
knowledge of the calculation and construction of " run 
sheets," but the ability to determine the costs of operation 
and probable earnings of a proposed system and then de- 
termine upon such schedules, etc., as will cause a proper re- 
lation to exist betw^een the operating expenses on the one 
hand, and the gross earnings on the other. 

In view of the rapidly increasing maximum speeds at 
which interurban systems are being operated, attention must 
also be paid to those details of design which will reduce the 
train resistance and more especially that element thereof 
known as '^^ wind resistance/' which is by far the greatest 
component of train resistance. Smooth, flat sides with the 
platform ends rounded or tapered and enclosed are among 
the simple and effective methods employed. It is astonishing 
what a saving in watt-hours per ton mile or per car mile the 
application of the simple methods above suggested Avill pro- 
duce as indicated by recent tests. 

The problem of determining the total amount of mechani- 
cal resistance opposed to the motion of a car or train is a 
very difficult one, for which it may be said, in fact, that no 
general solution applicable to all cases has thus far been 



MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 



153 



found. It has been generally admitted, for a long time, that 
this resistance, to which the general term " Train Resist- 
ance " has been applied, varies with the speed of a car or 
train; but there is a wide divergence of opinion in regard 
to the amount of variation to be expected at different speeds. 
Many " formulae " for calculating the train resistance as a 
function of the speed have been proposed and used. Mr. J. 
A. r. Aspinall, in his paper on '' Train Resistance," read 
before the Institution of Civil Engineers, in 1901, has tabu- 



Speed Resistance. 



Locomotive and Train. 



r~ ~t~ ^ ~ 



10 



20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 
Sceed in Miles per Hour=Y 



00 6a 70 



D.K.Clark, 
Formula R- 



2000 
2340 



(»+^) 



Engineering News. 
Formula R •= 2-l--|- 



B.L.W. 
Formula R = 

D.L.Barnes. 



3+- 



80 



DIAGEAM SHOWING CURVES OF TEAIN EESISTANCE. 

lated no less than 55 such formulae. A complete list would 
doubtless include twice that number. These formulae differ 
greatly in their form and in the purpose for which they 
are intended. In some cases the formula is intended to 
give the total resistance, including that of the locomotive 
and the cars constituting the train. In other cases the 
formula gives only the resistance of the train. In some 
cases the formula takes into account only the velocity of 
the train; in other cases the formula takes into account the 



154 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



number of cars and the weight and the length of the cars 
in the train. 

The diagram on p. 153 shows four curves of train resist- 
ance values, corresponding to four formulae, which are well 
known, and which have been much used in steam railroad 
work. The uppermost curve gives the values obtained by 
the formula of D. K. Clark, one of the oldest formulae, and, 
for a long time, the favorite and generally accepted formula. 




10 



20 



30 



40 50 60 

Speed, miles per hour. 



70 



90 



CURVES OF VARIOUS TRAIN RESISTANCE FORMULAE FOR TRAIN OF 

FIVE CARS. 

The other three lines represent the values obtained by the 
so-called '' Engineering I^ews '' formula, the Baldwin Loco- 
motive Works formula, and the Barnes formula, respectively. 
The Baldwin Locomotive Works formula is still looked upon 
as a very satisfactory and reliable one in steam railroad 
work for long passenger trains. The Clark formula is no 
longer considered reliable and satisfactory, especially at 
high speeds, and for long trains. 



MOTOR EQUIPMENT AXD ROLLING STOCK. 155 

It is seen that these formulae make no allowance for the 
weight of train or the number of cars, both of which are now 
recognized as important factors affecting the train resistance 
values. The so-called Wellington formula, proposed by 
Mr. A. M. Wellington, was one of the first formulae pro- 
posed and used in this country, in which the number and 
weight of cars were taken into consideration. Various for- 
mulae have since been proposed and used, w^hich include the 
weight of train, and also the number of cars, or else, the 
length of train. The most recent, and, perhaps, the most 
authoritative of these formulae, is that of J. A. F. Aspinall, 
given in his paper on train resistance, already referred to. 

The development of high-speed electric train service has 
called attention to the importance and desirability of for- 
mulae which are more especially applicable to electric trains. 

Of the formulae which have been proposed for expressing 
the resistance of electric trains, the most interesting are 
those of Davis, Blood, and Lundie. The diagrams on pp. 154 
and 156 enable the results obtainable by these formulae to 
be compared with each other, and also with the results ob- 
tained by various other formulae. The two sets of curves 
represent extreme cases. In that on p. 156 the curves are 
those which correspond to a single car of relatively light 
weight (25 tons). In this case the atmospheric resistance 
is very large in proportion to the axle, track, or other re- 
sistances. The curves in the diagram on p. 154 correspond 
to a train of five cars of relatively large weight (45 tons). 
In this case the atmospheric resistance represents a rela- 
tively smaller proportion of the wdiole resistance. The curve 
obtained by the Clark formula is the same in both those 
on pp. 154 and 156. The curve obtained by all the other 
formulae is different in the two figures, the resistance values 
in pounds per ton being, in all cases, lower for the case 
represented in the diagram on p. 154, than for the case rep- 
resented in that on p. 156. 

The curve marked " proposed " in both diagrams is that 



15G 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECOl^OMICS. 



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Speed, miles per hour. 



70 



80 



90 



100 



CURVES OF TRAIN" RESISTANCE FORMULA FOR SINGLE CAR 

OPERATION. 



MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 157 

corresponding to a tentative or provisional formula sug- 
gested by Mr. C. O. Mailloux. This formula has a form, 
resembling siomewhat the Da^ds formula, and resembling 
very closely the Welling1;on formula. The term expressing 
the portion of train resistance, which is due to atmospheric 
resistance, is based wholly on the celebrated experiments of 
Prof. W. F. M. Goss, with small car models enclosed in a 
conduit, and subjected to the action of a rapidly moving cur- 
rent or stream of air. In this formula the first term, instead 
of being constant, varies with the weight per axle, and ^vith 
the condition of the track. 

The formula proposed by Mr. Mailloux has the following 
form: 

f=(A+g;+.i,v+i:5H±:!?)V^ 

^ |/w / JNw 

in which 

A = a constant depending upon and varying with the diame- 
ter of car wheels and journals, 
g = a constant depending upon the condition of the track. 
]^ = number of cars per ton. 
V = train velocitv. 

t/ 

w = total weight of car in tons. 

The value of A varies between 6 and 9. 

The value of g varies between 2 and 5. 

For approximate calculations corresponding to average 
conditions, in the case of 8-wheel cars, the formula can take 
the following simplified form: 

f=8.5 + .15 V+ ^"^y-''^ V« 

in which 
W = total weight of train. 
iN" = number of cars per ton. 
V = velocity of train. 

Mr. Mailloux has also found that the train resistance 
values, in any given case, can be expressed with a certain 
degree of approximation by means of an empirical formula 
of the form E,^A + B V°. The objection to this formula 



158 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



is that the constant (A), the coefficient (B), and the exponent 
(n) are not fixed^ but change in value with each case. 

Below are a set of curves, showing the relation between 
speed and train friction in pounds per ton used by the Gen- 





































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30 40 50 

LBS.PEB-TON . 



60 



70 



CURVES SHOWING RELATIONS BETWEEN SPEED AND TRAIN 

FRICTION. 

eral Electric Company of Schenectady, ITew York. These 
curves represent the results of actual experiments made by 
the General Electric Company. 



MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 359 

The index to the curves is as follows: 
A = the operation of 10 or more cars in a train. 
B = the operation of 2 cars in a train. 
C = the operation of a single car. 

It is assumed that these cars weigh approximately 40 tons 
each. Mr. A. H. Armstrong states that the curves are ac- 
curate up to 60 miles per hour. 

As the matter of determination of the most economical 
schedule for any proposed installation can only be ascer- 
tained by the construction of accurate run-curves, taking 
into consideration all the elements of alignment, grade, etc., 
I think it will be well to here indicate the processes in- 
volved by showing the construction of an actual run-curve 
of part of one of the express runs of the ^e\v York and 
Port Chester Railroad Co., between the city of 'New Ho- 
chelle and the village of Larchmont, E^. Y., starting at 
New Rochelle and stopping at Larchmont. This run is 
shown in Plate II. 

In order to construct a " run-curve " a set of computa- 
tions are necessary. These are shown in Table XIII, which 
shows some of the data ; but only that part relating to the run 
between New Rochelle and Larchmont is used for this 
illustration. Prom Table XIII, it will be seen that the first 
portion of the run, 0.107 mile in length, is on a 4° curve and 
on a down-grade of 0.90 per cent. The data in the last 
column, giving the ^' correction for curve," show that the 
advantage of the down-grade is partly lost by the increase 
in the train resistance resulting from the curve, the result 
and effect being the same as if the line were straight and 
had a down-grade of 0.72 per cent, instead of a down-grade 
of 0.90 per cent. An acceleration curve corresponding to 
a down-grade of 0.72 per cent, if plotted on the diagram 
on p. 160, would evidently occupy a position between 
the first and second upper dotted lines, that is to say, it 
would come between the acceleration curves corresponding 



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SPEED IN MILES,(PER HOUR.) 




.^ ' > I 
IN MILES. 



[IGl] 



162 ELECTRIC RAIL^YAY ECONOMICS. 

respectively to down-grades of -J per cent, and 1 per cent. 
The most accurate way would be to calculate the data for 
the curve, and to plot it out in the same manner as was done 
for the curves shown on the diagram on p. 160. It was 
found, however, that a new curve could be plotted out with 
sufficient accuracy by interpolation between the cur\^es shown 
on this sheet. 'Thus, if the net percentage had been 0.Y5 
per cent., the curve could be plotted out at points exactly 
half way between the second and third dotted lines. The 
curve of 0.72 per cent, would, therefore, come a little 
under the half-way points. The curve having been inter- 
polated and drawn either on the original diagram or on a 
piece of tracing cloth placed over the said sheet, the next 
point was to determine the corresponding distance curve. 
It is seen from the diagram on p. 160 that the various 
distance curves are nearly equi-distant from each other. 
The distance curves corresponding to intermediate percent- 
ages could, therefore, be likewise obtained with sufficient 
accuracy by interpolation. The distance curve correspond- 
ing to the required percentage (0.Y2 per cent.) having been 
also drawn either on the original sheet or on the tracing 
sheet, it was cut off at the particular point corresponding 
on the distance scale to the length of the first portion of 
the run corresponding to the 4° curve, namely, 0.107 miles. 
The acceleration curve was then cut off at a point in line 
with the same time value. The curve shows that the time 
required by the train in covering this distance was 18.8 sec- 
onds, and that the speed attained at the end of this time was 
41.7 m. p. h. 

The next step was to continue the acceleration curve over 
the next portion of the run, which, according to the data 
of Table XIII, is 0.347 mile in length, straight, with no curve, 
and with a down-grade of 0.90 per cent. An acceleration 
curve corresponding to a grade of 0.90 per cent, having been 
interpolated on the diagram referred to, the portion of said 
curve corresponding to speeds above 41.7 was added to the 



MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 163 

first portion of the acceleration cur\^e determined in the 
manner just described. This second portion was prolonged 
until the area comprised thereby was equal to the length of 
said portion, namely, 0.347 mile. The proper point at which 
the curve should be cut off was determined by reference to 
the distance curve corresponding to this interpolated accelera- 
tion curve, because the difference in ordinate values of the 
distance curve corresponding to the beginning and the end 
of the portion of the acceleration curve considered, should 
be equal, when measured by the scale of miles, to the distance 
covered. The next portion of the run, as shown in Table 
XIII, was 0.521 mile in length, straight, and on an up-grade 
of 0.364 per cent. In this case the interpolated curve would 
come under the solid line curve in the diagram at a point 
nearly three-quarters of the distance between the solid line 
and the first dotted line (corresponding to -J per cent, up- 
grade). This curve was used in a like manner to continue 
the run curve and was in like manner cut off at the proper 
point, such that the distance covered during this portion of 
the curve, as shown by the distance curves, was equal to the 
length of said portion, namely, 0.521 mile. The acceleration 
cun^e for the next portion of the run was drawn and added 
tc the preceding portion of the run curve in substantially the 
same manner. The acceleration was not continued, however, 
for the entire distance of this portion of the run, the electric 
power being shut off from the motors after the train had 
covered a distance of only 0.152 mile on this portion of the 
run. The relative flatness of the curve in the portion cor- 
responding to the up-grade of 0.364 per cent., and its rela- 
tive steepness in the succeeding portion (corresponding to. a 
down-grade of 0.433 per cent.), are both the result and the 
indication of the effect of grades, the relative gain in speed 
being, as should be expected, much less on an up-grade than 
on a down-grade. The reason why the electric power is 
turned off at the point just stated, instead of being continued 
for a longer time, is that a certain distance must be allowed 



164 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

for in wHich to bring the car to a stop. The car is usually 
allowed to cover a portion of this distance by coasting, which 
causes the speed to be reduced at a rate varying according 
to the grade. In this case the coasting is on a down-grade 
and the coasting curve, corresponding to a down-grade of 
0.433 per cent., was interpolated in the diagram of drifting 
and braking curves, p. 165. It comes close to, but a 
trifle under, the first dotted line above the solid line which 
corresponds to a 0.5 per cent, grade. Having drawn this 
curve, it was added to the other portions of the run curve 
and cut oif at such a point that the corresponding distance 
covered was equal to 0.415 mile. The next portion of the 
run, as seen from the data in Table XIII, is 0.183 mile 
long, straight, on an up-grade of 0.122 per cent. The 
run curve shows that the car was allowed to coast on the 
first part of this portion of the run for a distance equal to 
only 0.061 mile, after which the brakes were applied. The 
remainder of this portion (0.121 mile) corresponds to the 
first part of the braking curve, the rest of which curve corre- 
sponds to the last two portions of the run, which are, re- 
spectively, 0.065 mile long, with 2° curve on 0.122 per cent, 
tip-grade, and 0.063 mile long, straight, on the same grade. 
The various portions of the brake curve being each straight 
lines, did not need to be interpolated, as they could be com- 
puted, and could be plotted direct from the data thus ob- 
tained. 

The run curve being completed, the next step was to draw 
the corresponding electrical energy input curve. This curA^e 
is plotted by reference to the kilowatt values obtainable from 
the input curve on the diagram on p. 166. This curve ends, 
of course, at the point where the current is shut off from the 
electric motors, which is the point of highest speed on the 
curve, — the rest of the distance being traveled by means of 
the momentum of the car. 

The area of the electrical input curve is proportional to 
the electrical energy, expressed in kilowatt-hours, required 



SPEED (IN MILES PER HOUR.) 




DISTANCE, IN MILES, 
CHART OF KETAEDATIONS. 
L1651 



166 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



and consumed during this run. In the particular case under 
consideration, this energy was found, for the run curve for 
the Express run from Xew Rochelle to Larchmont, to be 
equal exactly to 11 kilowatt-hours. The distance of the run 
being 1.853 miles, and the weight of the car being 52 tons, 



Eilo 


ratts 












1 










S 


& 


Tractive 


Effort 




\ 


1000 


230 
240 
230 

220 




Kilowatts 




\ 


950 
900 


(Motors in Ps 


rallel) 


\ 


850 
800 
750 


210 




(Per Motor) 






100 


Current 


(Per Car) 




\ 


B 700 
|>650 


180 
170 
100 










§ 600 


150 










£550 
k500 


140 

Kilo 


pattB 








|450 


Motors 11 
110 


Parallel 


•2 400 
350 
300 
250 


iftrt 










Current 
90 

80 

70 

00 


(Per Car) 


200 


50 










130 


40 










100 


30 

20 










50 


10 




Speed. (Mil 


;s per 


Hour) 




CUEVES SHOWING ENERGY INPUT AND TRACTIVE EFFORT. 

the number of ton-miles per car for this portion of the run 
would, therefore, be 

1,853 X 52 = 96.4 ton-miles. 
The energy consumption, when expressed in kiloAvatt-hours 
per mile, is equal to 

11 -f- 1.853 r= 5.94. 
and when expressed in watt-hours per ton-mile, is equivalent 
to 

11,000 -f- 96.4 =114. 
The process of drawing the run curves, and of making the 
energy computations therefrom, was substantially the same 



MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 1G7 

for all the other runs. The curv^es themselves, however, dif- 
fered for some of the runs in general appearance. Thus, the 
run curve (Plate III) for the run from Willis avenue to 
149th street, also for the Express run from Mamaroneck 
to Eye ^eck (Plate IV), and from Rye to Port Chester 
(Plate V), show peculiar notches in the middle portions. 
These notches are due to the fact that there are track curves 
in the line at various, intermediate points between the be- 
ginning and end of the run. There is usually a limit to 
the speed allowable on these curves, which limit depends upon 
the sharpness of the curve. It is therefore necessary to ar- 
range matters in such manner, that the speed shall be allowed 
to diminish either by coasting, or by braking, for some time 
before reaching the curve, to such extent tliat the speed on 
entering the curve shall be below the particular limit set for 
said curve. In the run curve corresponding to the Express 
run from East 149th street to Bronx park (Plate VI), the ac- 
celeration is continued until a speed of over 60 m. p. h. has 
been attained, at which point the brakes are applied, so as to 
reduce the speed to a little over 40 m. p. h., at the point of 
entering the track cun^e. The power is again applied, and ac- 
celeration takes place until a speed of about 63 m. p. h. has 
been attained, and the current is then shut off and the brakes 
are immediately applied so as to bring the train to a full stop 
at the end of the run. 

In the run from Mamaroneck to Rye ^eck, the power is 
shut off after accelerating to a speed of about 63 m. p. h., 
and the speed is then reduced by coasting, the reduction being 
such that the train enters the first (2°) track curve at a speed 
of 55 m. p. h., and it continues to coast until the end of said 
track curve, by which time the speed has fallen do^vn to about 
51 m. p. h. The power is then again applied, and acceleration 
takes place until the speed rises again to 55 m. p. h., w^here- 
upon the current is again cut off, and the train is allowed 
to coast, to reduce the speed in anticipation of the next track 
curve (4°). By the time this curve is reached, the speed 



J68 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

has been reduced to about 43 m. p. h. The train continues 
to coast until it passes out of this curve, at a speed of about 
42 m. p. h., at which time the current is again turned on and 
acceleration takes place to a speed of about 52 m. p. h., where- 
upon the brakes are again applied so as to again reduce the 
speed quickly, in anticipation of the next track curve (3°), 
which is entered at a speed of about 49 m. p. h., and run 
over while coasting, after which the current is again put on 
and acceleration takes place until the time comes for putting 
on the brakes to make the final stop. 

In the case of run curves, such as the preceding one, in 
which the current is shut off and again put on tAvo or more 
times in succession, the energy input curves will be made up 
of different portions or sections, each of which sections cor- 
responds to the time intervals during which acceleration takes 
place. In the run from Mamaroneck to Rye ^N^eck, the energy 
input curve consists of four distinct portions. The first por- 
tion of the energy input curve which corresponds to the initial 
acceleration, or the acceleration taking place when the train 
is leaving the station, has the usual form characteristic of the 
energy input curve corresponding to the initial acceleration 
curve of an ordinary run curve, namely, it rises abruptly to 
the kilowatt value (480 kw.), corresponding to the input 
current with half the voltage, and remains at this value, as in- 
dicated by the horizontal portion of the line, until the point 
is reached at which the motors become connected in parallel, 
when it instantly jumps to twice that value (960 kw.), at 
which value it remains until the point is reached at which the 
resistance is entirely cut oif by the controller, whereupon 
the values begin to diminish rapidly, as shown by the rapidly 
descending curve line, — this diminution being due to the 
reduction of the current as the motor speed increases. In 
this particular case the descending portion of the cun^e ends 
when the current is cut off for the first time at the end of 
about 78 seconds after starting. The line of kilowatt values 



MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 1G9 

then falls down to zero, indicating that there is no electric 
current applied to the motors for a period of ahout 29 sec- 
onds, during which time the train is coasting, after which it 
rises again to the value (about 525 kw.) corresponding to a 
speed of 50.5 m. p. h. At the end of the second acceleration 
in this run, when the speed has reached 55 m. p. h., at. which 
time the current is again cut off, the kilowatt value of the 
energy input curve again falls to zero, that is to say, the 
energy input curve is again interrupted, — there being, of 
course, no energy input during the interval of time that the 
train again coasts (in this case about 35 seconds), in antici- 
pation of entering the second curve and while passing over it. 
When the train again accelerates after passing out of the 
curve, electrical energy is again required and the energy input 
value again instantly rises to the value (about 820 kw.), cor- 
responding to the speed (41.6 m. p. h.) at the beginning of 
the acceleration. The kilowatt values diminish as the speed 
increases, same as before, and suddenly drop down to zero at 
the end of the third acceleration; they again rise at the be- 
ginning of the fourth and last acceleration, the highest value 
in this case being about 590 kilowatts, and the value again 
drops down to zero at the end of the fourth acceleration, just 
at the time that the brakes are applied. It is seen, therefore, 
that the energy input curve in this case is really in four dis- 
tinct sections, each corresponding to one of the four successive 
accelerations taking place during this run. The area com- 
prised in the time interval corresponding to each section is 
usually computed separately. In the run under consideration 
these areas are as follows: 

First acceleration 10.81 kilowatt-hours 

Second " 1 . 90 " 

Third " 1.83 

Fourth " 1.76 " 



Total 16.30 



a 



170 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



The various portions or sections of the input cur\^e cor- 
responding respectively to the successive accelerations, serve 
as a measure of the energy expenditure involved and made 
necessary by these accelerations. 



MT. VERNON 



PELHAM 



1100 65 




ACTUAL RUN CUEVES SHOWING DIFFERENCE IN ENERGY CON- 
SUMPTION FOR DIFFERENCE IN TIME IN MAKING A GIVEN RUN. 



MOTOR EQUIPMENT AXD ROLLING i^TOCK. 171 

The above cases are sufficiently typical to indicate the fea- 
tures of the general method of constructing the run curves 
for the various requirements of the case. The amount of 
time required for any given run is influenced by, and de- 
pends upon, the maximum speed reached, and the amount of 
coasting allowed during that run. The aggregate time con- 
sumed during all of the runs, plus the total time required for 
stops, should be exactly equal to the schedule time. If, when 
the run curves have been made for every run, it is found that 
the total time, including allowance for stops, is greater or 
less than the schedule time, then certain modifications must 
be made in some of the run curves, as may be required to 
comply with the schedule time requirement. Thus, if the run 
curves indicate a total time greater than what is allowed for 
the schedule time, the amount of coasting in some of the run 
curves must be reduced, and the acceleration must be allowed 
to bring the speed to a higher point and the braking must 
begin at a higher speed. If, on the contrary, the curve run 
shows a total time less than the schedule time, the amount 
of coasting may be increased, and the maximum speed re- 
quired, as well as the speeds of braking, may be both reduced ; 
the effect of such reduction being a material consequent re- 
duction in the energy required for the corresponding run, 
as might be expected from the fact that, when the amount of 
coasting is increased, the time during which the powder is 
applied to the electric motors is correspondingly reduced. 

Four sets of special run curves are here especially sho^vn 
for the purpose of showing the effect of coasting on the en- 
ergy consumption expressed in watt-hours per ton-mile. 
These curves correspond to four runs which happen to be 
the same length for both Express and Local Trains, as 
follows : 

First: From Willis avenue to 149th street. See Plate 
TIL 

Second : From Mt. Vernon to Pelham. See diagram on 
p. 170. 



172 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

Third: From E^ew Rochelle to Larchmont. See Plate 
II. 

Fonrtli : From Rye 'Neck to Rye. See Plate I. 

On Plates I, II, and III three run curves are superimposed 
on the same chart. The corresponding energy curves are 
drawn and shaded, and the areas corresponding thereto are 
shaded in such manner as to clearly indicate to which par- 
ticular run curve each belonged. These comparative curves 
show clearly the great reduction in energy required when the 
amount of coasting is increased and are most eloquent object 
lessons of the relations of schedule speeds and energy con- 
sumption to the economies of operation. 

When that part of a run curve corresponding to each in- 
dividual run, between the stations, has been constructed, a 
total run curve is made by selecting the desired individual 
run curves and combining them, allowing the determined 
time for stops at stations, varying from 10 to 20 seconds be- 
tween each run. Of course separate individual and total run 
curves must be made for the runs between termini in each 
direction. 

In determining upon the details of the car equipment and 
trucks for a railroad system it should be always borne in 
mind that the source of revenue of the railroad — the Public 
— is essentially interested in the general appearance of the 
cars and those elements of their design and construction 
w^hich will assure to it a maximum of safety and comfort. 
To attract to themselves a maximum of patronage and 
especially to secure and hold that powerful asset known asi 
public approval or public good-will, interurban systems must 
look well to the details of their car equipment. I assume, 
of course, that the plans contemplate first-class passenger 
stations and roadbed and properly designed and conse- 
quently raliable transmission systems and sources of power. 

In determining upon the finish of the cars, the items of 
subsequent costs of operation and maintenance should never 
be lost sight of. Excessive ornamentation, filigree work, and 
fancy figure painting and fancy lettering should be avoided. 



MOTOR EQUIPMENT A\D ROLLING STOCK. 173 

Roomy cars, of first-class design, material and construction, 
finished inside and outside in such manner as to be Avorthy 
of the characterization of " simple elegance,^ will do as much 
or more to make for good earnings as any other two elements 
combined. 

For interurban high-speed systems, ha\ang definite stop- 
ping places at distances of a mile or more apart, relatively 
long cars having bodies from 40 to 50 feet long, with 
5-foot platforms, will be found desirable. It is not desir- 
able to run open-cars of the existing type on such roads, on 
account of the inconveniences which would result due to 
maximum speeds of 45 miles an hour and over. For this 
class of road, it will be found best to adopt a car having 
large windows, with the frames so constructed that the sash 
can be readily lowered or raised, thereby affording to pas- 
sengers all the advantages of open cars. The question of 
doors at the middle of the cars has also been discussed pro 
and con. Generally speaking, middle doors are undesirable 
for interurban cars, on account of the fact that they require 
additional platform attendance and thereby increase the 
operating costs, without affording any proportionate gain. 
Their use is generally advocated on the plea that they facili- 
tate loading and unloading. This contention is not borne out 
by the results which have been obtained where they have been 
tried. 

With the advent of high speeds and heavier motors have 
come the necessity for changes in truck construction. Motor 
manufacturers will guarantee far more satisfactory results 
if they be given a truck having a 6-foot 6 inches to T-foot 
wheel base, with wheels 36 to 42 inches in diameter, than they 
can guarantee with 6-foot wheel bases and 30 to 33-inch 
wheels. The subject of trucks does not appear to have devel- 
oped as rapidly, or risen to the new requirements as readily, 
as have other details of the car equipment, more especially 
those of motors and controllers. 

In the matter of trucks as in the matter of permanent 
way, much time and money will be saved if the engineers 



174 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 



of modem interurban systems will study the best steam- 
road practice. A recent truck specification prepared by the 
writer provided for the following dimensions : 

Wheels — 36-inch diameter with steel tires. 

Tread — 3 J inches. 

Flange — 1^ inches. 

Axles to be 7^ inches in diameter at wheel seat. 

Axles to be 7J inches in diameter at gear seat. 

Journals to be 5 x 9 inches. 

In addition to these dimensions, which indicate the increase 
in dimensions, are specified the materials to be used and the 
tests to which the product will be submitted. The standard 
tests adopted by the Master Car Builders are, in general, 
used. I believe that the best results will be obtained if the 
Master Car Builders' requirements be followed for some 
time to come, for the reason that trafiic arrangements and 
consequent interchange of equipment will soon exist on a 
large scale between electrically operated and the present steam 
roads, to the mutual advantage of both the public and the 
railroad companies. Such arrangements will be facilitated 
and hastened if the electric systems will design their equip- 
ments with that in mind. 



TABLE XIII. 

Grades, Curves, Etc., for Some Local and Express Runs Going fror.i 
'New York to Port Chester. 

NEW ROCHELLE (Express Station). 



Run No. 


Length 

IN 

Miles. 


Curva- 
ture. 


% OF Grade. 


Correction for Curve. 


Express. 


Local. 


Up. 


Down. 




7 


14 


.107 

.347 
.521 
.567 
.183 
.065 

.063 


4° 
Tangent 

2° 
Tangent 


.364 

,122 
.122 

.122 


.90 
.90 
.433 


@ .9 = 3.6 lbs. = + 1.180^ net 

= - .90+. 18= -0.72^ 

@. .9=1.8 lbs. = 4-0.09^ net 

+ 0.122 + 0.090= 4-0.212^ 


1.853 


1.853 


13.304 




1 





MOTOR EQUIPMENT AXD ROLLING STOCK. 

TABLE XIII —Continued. 
LARCHMONT (Express Station). 



175 



WILLIS AVENUE STATION (Terminal). 



Run No. 


Length 

IN 

Miles. 


Curva- 
ture. 


% OF Grade. 


Correction for Curve. 












Express. 


Local. 






Up. 


Down. 




1 


1 


0.111 
.189 
.189 
.135 

.208 

.374 
.113 

306 


Tangent 

7° 10' 

Tangent 
1°30' 

Tangent 




1.3 
0.283 

1 1. 


(^ 0.9 lb. per deg. 6.45 lbs. 
= + 0.3225^ equivalent 
grade. Net effect = + .04% 
grade. 

@ .9+ .45 = 1.3520 = .0675^ 
net + .283 - .0675 = - 0.215,t 


1.625 


1.625 


1.625 






1 





149th STREET STATION (Express Station . 


2 


2 


.378 
.110 
.133 

.038 
.303 

.017 


Tangent 
2° 52' 

Tangent 
1°23' 

Tangent 


0.348 




@ .9 = 2.58 lbs. = 4- 0.129^ 
net = 4- 0.348 + 0.129 = 
-f 0.477^ 

@, .9 = 1.24 lbs. = 4- .062^ net 
= 4- .348 4- .062 = 4- 0.410^ 




.979 


2.604 











HUNTS POINT ROAD (Local Station). 



3 


.115 
.114 


Tangent 
3° 


0.348 






.041 
.265 
.016 

.107 

3.262 


Tangent 
1°22' 




0.286 


.658 









^ .9 = 2.7 lbs. = + 0.135/^ net 
= 4-0.135 = 0.348 = 4 0.4" 



.9 = 1.23 lbs. = -(-0.62?» 





WESTCHESTER AVENUE (Local Station). 




4 


.005 
.060 
.567 
.396 
.086 


1°22' 
Tangent 


0.433 




@ .9 = 1.23 lbs. = 4- -062^ 


2.751 


1.114 


4.376 











176 



ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

TABLE XIII — Continued. 
BRONX PARK (Express Station). 



EuN No. 


Length 

IN 

Miles. 


Curva- 
ture. 


fc OF Grade. 


Correction for Curve. 


Express. 


Local. 


Up. 


Down. 




3 


5 


.226 
.424 

.034 
.009 


Tangent 
1° 

Tangent 


0.65 
0.65 

0.65 
0.475 




@ .9 = 0.9 lbs. = 4- .045^ net 
= + 0.65 + .045 = 4- 0.695j^ 




.683 


5.059 











1.429 



BEAR SWAMP ROAD. 



6 


.542 

.204 


Tangent 
1° 


0.475 
0.475 




.746 


5.805 









^ .9 = 0.9 lbs. = 4- 0.045^ net 
= +0.475-f 0.045 = 4-0.52$^ 



BRONX AND PE 


LHAM 


PARKWAY (Express Station). 


4 


7 


.156 

.314 
.383 

.125 
.043 
.166 


1° 

Tangent 
1°9' 

Tangent 

1°30' 


0.163 


0.561 


@. .9 = 0.9 lbs. = + 0.045^ net 
= + . 163 + 0.045 = + 0.208^ 

@ .9 = 1.03 lbs. = -\- 0.052$? net 
= + 0.163 + 0.052 = + 0.215^ 

@, .9 = 1.35 = 4- 0.0675^ net 
= - .561 4- 0.068 = 0.0493$? 




1.137 


6.942 















EASTCHESTER (Local Station). 




8 


.153 

.414 
.197 
.190 

.016 


1°30' 
Tangent 

1° 
Tangent 




5.61 

0.05 
0.05 

0.05 


@ .9 = 1.35 lbs. = -f 0.068^ net 
= - .561 4- 0.068 = - 0.493^ 

@ .9 = 0.9 lbs. = + 0.045' net 
= - 0.05 = 0.045 =: - 0.005^ 




.870 


7.812 













BOSTON POST ROAD (Local Station). 




9 


.440 
.012 

.227 


Tangent 

2° 

2^ 




0.05 
1.52 


@.9 = 1.8 lbs. = + 0.09^ net 
= +.09- .05 = 4-0.04$? 

@ .9 = 1.8 lbs. =4-0.09^ net 
= -1.52 + 0.09 =-1.43^ 




.679 


8.491 











MOTOR EQUIPMENT AND ROLLING STOCK. 177 

TABLE XIII — Continued. 
SOUTH MOUNT VERNON (Local Station). 



Run No. 


Length 

IN 

Miles. 


Curva- 
ture. 


% OF Grade. 


Correction for Curve. 


Express. 


T.,ocal. 


Up. 


Down. 






10 


.092 

.154 

.182 


2° 
Tangent 




1.52 
0.18 


@ 9.=1.8 lbs.= + 0.09;? net 
— - 1.52 + 0.09 = - 1.43^ 


3.114 1 .428 


8.919 









MOUNT VERNON (Express Station). 

The foregomg- table is given to indicate, in a few instances, some of the 
computations and determinations required in connection with the deter- 
mination and construction of any special set of ran curves. The table is 
given, in part, as it was computed and used. The third column refers to 
the distance, in miles, from the southern terminus. — W. C. G. 



12 



CHAPTER XIV. 

RIGHT OF WAY. 

In view of the character of the service which is being 
exacted of modern interurban railroads, it is not easy to per- 
ceive why those responsible for planning and laying out such 
railways so often persist in selecting public highways for 
the route, etc. The essential characteristics of successful 
interurban railways, as already shown, must be: 

1. Safety to the public. 

2. High schedule speed. 

3. Minimum cost of operation and maintenance. 

'None of the foregoing conditions can be satisfactorily at- 
tained where the cars are operated upon or along public high- 
ways, upon w^hich pedestrian and vehicular traffic also exists. 

Individual or private rights of w^ay are the solution of the 
problem. The private right of way, however, should be an 
individual roadway throughout, that is, it should be free 
from grade crossings of all kinds, except at such special 
points and places where the cars run onto other tracks over 
w^hich they are to operate. 

Interurban roads, to be successful, must be capable of mak- 
ing high speeds, safely and continuously, and this cannot 
be accomplished where the roadway occupies the public high- 
way, or crosses intersecting highways at grade. 

Furthermore, when a railroad owns its right of way it is 
once and for all exempt from the demands, and continu- 
ously increasing impositions of public officials in the matter 
of annual payments to the local authorities as '^ compensa- 
tion " for the use of the highways and of repairs to the 
space between its outside rails, and for various and increas- 
ing distances beyond the outside rails. In such matters it 
has become the practice of some public officials to impose 
additional burdens every time a given railroad seeks any 
additional or other privileges in the matter of extensions, 

track facilities, etc. 

[178] 



RIGHT OF WAY. 179 

I recall several cases where interurban lines have been laid 
on public highways for considerable distances, when they 
could have purchased rights of way parallel to the highways 
upon which they had laid their rails, and but a few hun- 
dred feet from such highways, for merely nominal sums 
ranging between $1,200 to $2,000 per mile. For a road 
thirty miles in length, a private right of way costing as 
much as $3,000 per mile will increase the cost but $90,000 
for the right of way and (allowing the maximum of three 
crossings per mile at an average cost of $5,000 each) about 
$150,000 for the crossings, or a total of $240,000. At 5 per 
cent, the interest on this cost is but $12,000 per annum. 
As the items of operation and maintenance must be less for 
the road using a private right of way, they can safely be left 
out. 

Consider the relative marked advantages which a private 
right of way 200 to 500 feet from the main road would 
secure. In the first place a schedule speed three or four 
times as great could safely be made, and as relatively high 
speeds and large daily car mileage per car are necessary to 
secure the best commercial results, for long haul business 
this is all-important. In the second place the railroad would 
be free from the petty annoyances, impositions, and demands 
of ignorant, unjust, or corrupt local authorities. In the 
third place its property must become more valuable each 
year as the adjoining territory builds up and settles, and 
within a comparatively short time it will probably have a 
railroad through a thickly settled community, upon its own 
property or right of way, subject to no annoyances, imposi- 
tions, or charges, except the universal and open real estate 
tax. In the fourth place it will be in a position to so ma- 
nipulate and increase its schedules as to enable it to '^ get all 
there is out of the territory,^'' and it can also arrange for and 
take care of any passenger or freight business of any existing 
or future connecting road or roads. In the case assumed in 
the preceding paragraph, the additional annual fixed charge 



180 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

for these advantages is $12,000, plus the anrmal real estate 
tax against which must be placed, for the care of a good road 
upon a public highway, the interest on the first cost of pav- 
ing between the rails and for the required distance outside 
of the rails, plus the annual cost of maintaining the road- 
way as demanded by the local authorities to facilitate vehi- 
cular traffic, and it should not be forgotten that the cost of 
maintaining any roadway subject to vehicular traffic is always 
in excess of maintenance costs where vehicular traffic does 
not occur on the railroad roadway. Consequently, we have 
here two extra additional costs which are : First. That of 
maintaining a paved or macadamized roadway for vehicular 
traffic. Second. That extra cost of maintaining a roadway, 
such las cost of surfacing, alignment, etc., due to the addi- 
tional use of the roadway by all kinds of vehicles. To the 
foregoing debits against the tracks upon public highways 
must generally be added the annual payment exacted for 
the use of the highway known as " compensation." In sev- 
eral instances which I have investigated the two accounts 
were about equal, leaving no doubt as to which scheme to 
adopt, as in the one case the company would have nothing for 
its money, while in the other it would have had a real estate 
asset which would constantly increase in value. In several 
operating properties which I have investigated I have been 
able to show that it would pay the companies to buy their own 
right of way and take up their tracks at the time on the pub- 
lic streets and highways. By so doing they would eliminate 
the costs of paving, maintaining the paving, etc., and could 
obtain a far greater revenue per car on account of the far 
greater daily car mileage per car obtainable on account of the 
more rapid schedules permissible on a private right of way. 
In addition there would be eliminated the uncertain, con- 
stantly increasing and constantly more serious claims on ac- 
count of accidents, due to collisions, etc., on account of the 
development of the territory and the constantly increasing 



RIGHT OF WAY. 181 

use of tlie railroad by tlie public together with the conse- 
quent greater use of the highways by the public. 

In the matter of its roadway, the high-class electric in- 
terurban cannot possibly do better than adhere to the prac- 
tice of the best steam roads in this respect. The Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad and the !New York Central Railroad may be 
cited as the best example of permanent way and roadway con- 
struction. 

The use of a right of Avay frequently involves the exercise 
of the right of Eminent Domain, by which is meant the 
right to condemn land. Wherever a railroad company pos- 
sesses the right of eminent domain, it can and frequently 
does condemn any piece of property, except that owned by 
another railroad or a municipality, required for its railroad, 
where the owmer of such piece of land declines to sell the 
land to the company, or where the price asked for the 
land is unfair. Before the right of eminent domain can be 
exercised, it is generally necessary to file with the proper 
authorities what are known as " property maps," or " right- 
of-way " maps. Such maps show the transit line, as having 
been determined, together with a profile of the line showing 
the proposed sub-grade, that is, the surface on which the bal- 
last is laid, of the railroad. It is generally necessary that 
such right-of-way maps shall show the last owner of each and 
every piece of land which will be occupied by the railroad. 
Such maps are best made to a scale of 200 to 300 feet per 
inch for the transit line (that is, the horizontal scale). The 
scale of profile, that is, the vertical scale, can be very well 
taken as 20 feet to the inch. 

The property maps can either be made on a continuous 
sheet, as is very often done, or they can be divided into a 
number of separate sheets, each approximately 30 inches by 
48 inches. Where a number of separate sheets are used, 
they are all arranged in proper sequential order, and se- 
curely bound together. The maps which are filed are gener- 
ally either sun prints or blue prints of such sheets. Such 



182 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

maps are generally required to be filed with the county clerk 
of each county through which the line of the road passes, that 
is, a map of that part of the line of the road passing through 
a given county is required to be filed with the county clerk of 
that county. 

As the separate sheet system can more conveniently be 
made and upon a very much larger scale, and as any part of 
the line can be readily altered or changed, I prefer the sepa- 
rate sheet system. 

Right-of-way maps are of the utmost importance, and 
must be prepared with the greatest care. Absolute accuracy 
is essential, as they are the bases upon which the right of 
way will be acquired. It is also necessary from a legal point 
of view that absolute accuracy be attained in the prepara- 
tion of these right-of-way maps, for the reason that before 
condemnation proceedings can be commenced, it is necessary 
that each and every last owner or occupant of the land 
which will be occupied by the line of the road shall be 
served with a notice informing him that it is proposed to 
take his land for railroad purposes. The person so served 
has the right, at any time within fifteen days, under the 
law of ^ew York State, after having been served, to ap- 
peal to the court, and ask that the line of the road be 
changed. Such requests are generally not granted un- 
less it can be shown that great and public good will 
result by the proposed change. When these proceed- 
ings have been consummated, all lands shown as occupied, or 
to be occupied by the line of the proposed road are, at all 
future times, subject to be taken for the use of the railroad, 
the filed maps of which show that such lands will be re- 
quired. In fact, a railroad after having filed its maps, upon 
completing the legal proceedings indicated above, has prac- 
tically a lien upon all lands which will be required for its 
purpose, which are included in the route shown on such 
maps. 

When a piece of land is purchased by a railroad, the deed 



RIGHT OF WAY. 183 

should be attached to or refer to a small map showing the 
part taken. As a matter of fact, in purchasing land, it is 
necessary that each and every part of land which will be af- 
fected shall be individually surveyed. In this respect, the 
acquisition of land by a railroad company is no different 
from that involved in the acquisition of any piece of land 
where great care is always taken to dehne accurately, the 
property purchased. 

The real estate or land department is a most important 
part of the organization of a modem steam railroad, and 
will be of equally great import for such enterprises as are 
here being discussed. 

Many different kinds of maps are required for the proper 
conduct of the real estate department of a railroad, among 
which are: 

1. Right-of-way maps. 

2. Station maps. 

3. Land-grant maps. 

4. Maps showing gravel pit and borrow pit privileges. 

5. Crossing contract maps, showing crossings with other 

roads. 

6. Taxation maps, and numerous others. 

The final or permanent right-of-way maps are never 
made until the line is constructed on account of possible 
changes in the line during the period of construction. 

The procedure generally followed by the real estate 
department of a railroad in purchasing railroad lands is as 
follows : 

1. An option is obtained from the owner. 

2. A careful examination is made of the title. Should 
the title be defective, the option money is returned. 

3. A description of the land to be purchased is drawn, a 
map thereof is made, and a deed prepared for execution. 

4. After the execution of the deed, it is returned to the 
real estate department, where it is checked and entered upon 
the proper map or maps, after which it is entered in a 



184 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

register of land purchases, wherein are shown the names of 
grantee and grantor, together with a brief description of the 
premises, the deed of purchase, and the price paid therefor. 

Once in the hands of the real estate department, it is 
filed in the proper files, where it is always readily accessible. 

It must be borne in mind that all that has been said 
about right of way applies to railroads constructed on pri- 
vate lands, owned by the railroad company, except where its 
line or lines crosses public highways. 

In many cases the right-of-way maps are prepared and 
filed very early in the operations of the company. In cases 
in and around large cities, where the filing of such maps 
is apt to be taken advantage of by real estate speculators 
and others, I do not think it advisable to file such maps at 
the outset. In this regard, I have always found it advan- 
tageous to proceed with the determination of the project 
to the extent of obtaining the required legal and other as- 
sents for the crossing of the various' highways, etc., which 
will be crossed by the line of the road, and then, before 
the maps are filed, proceed quietly and unostentatiously to 
purchase such lands as will be required by the railroad. 

When all the land which it is possible to purchase at fair 
prices has been acquired, the right-of-way maps can then 
be filed, and condemnation proceedings proceeded with for 
such land as the owners will not part with for a fair value. 

For the case of conditions such as we have been discussing, 
the various States generally grant charters for the railroad 
operating between termini, that is, the termini are specified, 
and the railroad company is at liberty to make such reason- 
able alterations in its route as it may deem proper from 
time to time. Such alterations can always be made with 
greater advantage to the railroad company before the filing 
of the final maps. 

In connection herewith should not be forgotten what 
has been said about the right of any property-owner to 
apply to the court for a change of route. In purchasing 



RIGHT OF WAY. 185 

land for the railroad, as indicated immediately above, this 
right of the property-owner must be borne in mind. It 
can be seen that acting under that right a considerable por- 
tion of the route may be changed, and, consequently, some 
lands which may have been purchased by the railroad com- 
pany before the filing of its maps will not be available for 
its uses along the line which it had determined upon. I 
think, however, that all things considered, it will be found 
far better to acquire the right of way before the filing of the 
final maps, or as much of the right of way as it is possible 
to acquire before such maps are filed. 

In cases where condemnation proceedings are necessary 
the value of the land is generally determined by commis- 
sions appointed by a court. Such commissions must be 
guided, essentially, by the value of lands adjoining that 
which is made the subject of condemnation, and of w^hicli 
they are to fix the value. It is a good plan for a railroad 
company or its operating syndicate to go along its proposed 
line and purchase odd plots or pieces of land for the purpose 
of thereby fixing the value of «€)ther surrounding property, 
and thereby not only aid the condemnation commission, but 
avoid the fixing of exorbitant values. In a very recent case 
of this kind the railroad company followed this procedure 
pauch to the final chagrin and surprise of a number of un- 
scrupulous real estate sharks, who had obtained options upon 
property which the railroad would require, and then de- 
manded many times the actual value of the property upon 
which they held options. The speculators, in the case in 
mind, were finally glad to surrender their claims for what 
they had paid for them, and, in a number of instances, at an 
actual loss. 



CHAPTER XV. 

PREPARATION OF SPECIFICATIONS. 

We are now ready to proceed with the preparation of 
the general specifications, in the event of a decision to let 
a contract for the construction and equipment and delivery 
of the road in operation, to a contractor; or else the 
preparation of each of the detail specifications should the 
railroad company conclude to do the work of construction 
and equipment itself. Even should a contract be let to a 
contractor for the entire work, such a contract, together 
with the accompanying specifications, almost invariably re- 
serves to the railroad company the right to approve any 
design or apparatus which the contractor proposes to make 
use of. This is especially the case where the contract pro- 
vides that the contractor shall receive a percentage of the 
total cost of construction and equipment of the proposed 
enterprise as his profit. 

Specifications have been, and often are yet, the cause of 
much entirely unnecessary trouble, friction, and litigation. 
Engineers are often prone to attempt to display their 
technical erudition in specifications. They either do not 
know, or else disregard the fact that the details of the 
design and construction of prime movers, generators, trans- 
formers, motors., and control apparatus are problems which 
are receiving the constant application of the brightest de- 
tail engineering minds which the large manufacturing 
companies can secure. The details of the design, develop- 
ment, and construction of electrical apparatus are a life 
study in themselves. The matter of keeping abreast of and 
securing for any enterprise the latest approved and most 
efficient construction and apparatus from the point of view 
of developed results, is the function of the consulting 
engineer. 

Specifications should specify Performance, as it is the 

[186] 



, PREPARATION OF SPECIFICATIONS. 187 

Results that are of essential interest to the owners of rail- 
roads and kindred enterprises. Specifiations for prime 
movers and generators should specify: 

1. Type and general character (that is whether A. C, or 
D. C.) 

2. Capacity and overload. 

3. Commercial efficiency at various loads. 

4. Heating limits (for generators). 

5. Excitation (whether separately or self excited and 
at what voltage). 

6. Speed, regulation, and compounding. 

7. Approximate floor space. 

8. Voltage. 

9. Mechanical strength and mechanical features relating 
to bearings, mountings, etc. 

Motor specifications should specify: 

1. Capacity and overload. 

2. Heating limits. 

3. Commutation (for direct current). 

4. Maximum weight. 

5. Efficiency at various loads. 

6. Voltage which will be used. 

7. Mechanical strength and mechanical features such as 
characteristics of bearings, etc. 

The development of controlling apparatus is along the 
lines of the multiple unit type. There are now in use two 
general types of multiple unit control apparatus. 

1. Automatic control. 

2. Non-automatic control. 

It should be stated that a multiple unit system of control 
is a system wherein the energy supplied to each or any 
motor car of a train unit is controlled by an operator 
(motorman) from any platform or control cab of any motor 
car unit, or car not supplied with motors where such cars 
are supplied with control apparatus. 

In an automatic system of multiple unit car control, the 



188 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

maximum rate of acceleration and, consequently, the cur- 
rent limit is independent of the action or volition of the 
operator or motorman, a condition which may be of im- 
portance in the operation of high-speed systems, with rela- 
tively short distances between stops. In a non-automatic 
system the rate of acceleration is controlled by the rapidity 
with which the controller handle is moved from the " OFF '^ 
position to the position of maximum speed. 

There are pros and cons for each system as well as in- 
stances where one of the two systems is preferable. The 
automatic system may be a saving safety valve where high 
schedules with relatively frequent stops are required to be 
made vdth indifferent, careless, or ignorant motormen. On 
the other hand, the non-automatic or hand control gives 
greater flexibility and enables the motorman to make up 
lost time by higher rates of acceleration if necessary. 

It must not be supposed that a general specification is a 
document merely skimming over the matter. Such speci- 
fications specify essentially performance and only pre- 
scribe methods and details where, among a number of dif- 
ferent methods and details, certain ones of them are 
recognized as the best. General specifications carefully pre- 
pared by competent engineers and specifying essentially 
performance and results required, absolutely safeguard the 
interests of a railroad company about to let a contract 
in toto. 

In the appendix an actual specification for an inter- 
urban electric road, prepared by the writer, is given. The 
subject is there divided into the following sections : 

1. General description of the line of the road. 

2. General description of the plan of construction and 
equipment. 

3. Graduation. 

4. Roadbed. 

5. Bridges and crossings. 

6. Equipment. 



PREPARATION OF SPECIFICATIONS. 189 

7. Stations (passenger). 

8. General clauses. 

Such specifications not only state the results which are 
required, but in the case of important installations, as shown 
in the specification of Appendix I, usually provide for a series 
of tests to determine whether the requirements as to the 
efiiciency, etc., of the integers such as motors, other ma- 
chinery and the system as a Avhole have been complied with. 

The details of the construction contract which is based 
upon the specifications will not here be discussed except to 
say that it should be drawn up by the best legal talent obtain- 
able. The function of the engineer in its preparation is to 
prepare for the counsel a brief, setting forth what is desired 
for such contract. With the digest or brief and the speci- 
fications, the lawyer is fully equipped. The less meddling 
the engineer does with the legal part of such contracts the 
greater will be his ultimate peace of mind as well as that of 
his employers. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

THE CONSTIIUOTION PERIOD. 

Before and during the construction the railroad company 
establishes and maintains for the contractor the elevations 
and alignment finally determined upon. On each stake there 
should be marked the amount of cut or fill. As the con- 
tractor reports on all work his figures should be promptly 
checked by the railroad company's engineers. 

A good plan is to employ a photographer and have a 
number of photographs made of different places on and along 
the line before the construction is commenced. On each 
negative is written the locality together with the date of 
taking. As the work progresses;, photographs should be 
constantly taken and each negative labeled as indicated. 
This is done to retain a record of the progress of the work. 
Such photographic records in connection with accurate 
diaries may be of inestimable value years later. They are 
especially apt to attain value where the work is through 
cities in the event of subsequent damage suits, often inten- 
tionally long deferred. In the case of a large undertaking, 
these photographs often number several thousand, and in 
connection with a carefully kept diary of the work done, 
constitute an invaluable record of the status of the con- 
struction at all periods of it. 

It is also very important that a daily knowledge of the 
progress of the work should be constantly before the engi- 
neer or manager of construction. The best method of keep- 
ing and developing the progress of the details of construction 
is by the use of what are kno^vm as Progress Sheets. Such 
sheets are either in one piece (like a continuous transit lino 
and profile sheet), or are made in sections for convenience in 
handling and reference (as described in the sectional prop- 
erty maps), and contain the transit line or simply the " line " 

[190] 



THE CONSTRUCTION PERIOD. 191 

as a starting point. A system of colors are then arbitrarily 
chosen to represent, among others, 

1. Graduation started. 

2. Graduation completed. 

3. Roadbed ballasted. 

4. Ties distributed. 

5. Track steel in place. 

6. Track bonding completed. 

7. Third rail insulators in place, etc. 

8. Third rail in place. 

9. Distributing system completed. 

These daily construction operations are indicated by 
drawing in its proper color adjacent to the existing colored 
line or lines, the proper succeeding lines each day. The 
data is taken each morning from the reports required to be 
sent in by the assistant engineers at the close of each day's 
work. The advantages of such continuous and complete 
pictorial records over a system of written reports are too 
apparent to require comment. Where structural steel work 
is involved, or where much tunneling is required, or where 
there are many arches and subways it is only necessary to 
adapt the color system to these forms of construction which, 
it is apparent, can be readily done. 

Careful records should be kept of the quantity and cost 
of each kind of work and such costs reduced to a unit basis 
at some convenient time. Such complete records and data 
will show the cost per cubic yard for earth and rock ex- 
cavation, etc.; the cost per foot of pile driven; the cost 
per lineal foot of structure for concrete or steel structures 
or both; the cost per unit for laying track and installing 
third rail, etc. Such individual accurate data, taken in con- 
nection with that already noted relating to earnings per 
capita for different populations, etc., are the stock in trade 
of the engineer. Contracting engineers or engineers repre- 
senting contractors generally have the best facilities for 
obtaining such detail data. 



192 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

The time for the starting of any new road is preferably 
during the early months of the summer, or before the sum- 
mer shall have so far advanced that the pleasure traffic will 
be lost. There is always an immense amount of pleasure 
riding during the hot days and evenings of the summer 
months. If a road can be started early, it is probable that 
the riding habit can be largely developed during the sum- 
mer months, a condition which will have a marked and 
material effect upon the future receipts. Furthermore, the 
always relatively heavy summer receipts are an agreeable 
offset, in the minds of the stockholders, to those additional 
inaugural expenditures which sometimes occur before the 
operation can be systematized and brought down to a stable 
basis. The summer receipts also generally more than pro- 
vide for the first interest payment. 



CHAPTEE XVII. 

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE OPEBATING DEPARTMENT. 

Before the work of the contractor is concluded, the rail- 
way company will necessarily have to commence the organi- 
zation of its operating department. The subsequent success 
of any enterprise will depend essentially upon the capacity, 
characteristics, and experience of the directing heads. Each 
department should be presided over and the results thereof, as 
well as every person connected therewith, should be entirely 
subject to the head of such department. Competent one- 
man power is always accompanied with good results. All 
employees of any department should feel that they hold 
their positions subject to the head of the department. The 
successful discharge of the functions of any detail depart- 
ment, viewed from the point of view of operating costs, 
invariably requires men possessing more than technical 
talents or attributes. A study and a knowledge of human 
nature and a recognition of and respect for the feelings of 
others, regardless of their station in life, are often the 
real controlling factors where the best results are secured. 

It is especially desirable to avoid too much organization 
and especially divided authority. It is safe to say that 
a majority of the failures in business enterprises are due to 
either or both of these causes. 

It is also well not to forget that transportation systems, 
and consequently the men in charge of such systems, are 
the sen^ants of the public, and dependent upon the public. 
Any disregard of the public is almost certain to be succeeded 
by some undesirable consequences. 

In the operation, as well as during the construction of 
a railroad, as stated in the preceding chapter, it is of the 
utmost importance that the chief engineer, manager, or other 
responsible head of the company should keep himself con- 
stantly in touch with and informed as to the progress and 
13 



194 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

cost of all of the details. In order to do so, accurate detail 
records must be kept, necessitating the employment of 
clerks or assistants to daily segregate, reduce, and compile 
the data. In the case of large roads, the proper keeping 
of the detail records may require the employment and con- 
Btant application of a number of assistants for this purpose 
alone. 

One of the most advantageous investments any railroad 
company can make is that required for the payment of 
the cost of producing and keeping accurate detail data of 
the operation of its property. The investment is, of course, 
that involved in the salaries of the required assistants, to- 
gether with the materials which will be used in the gather- 
ing and reduction of the data. Whenever an engineer or 
manager is heard to scoff at, and deride such detail data 
and work, it is safe to say that it is but a question of a 
short time before he will run his course. Such men are 
generally too ignorant to appreciate the absurdity of try- 
ing to successfully conduct a business without such informa- 
tion constantly before them as will enable them to pene- 
trate each detail, and its variations. Without some detail 
system, how is an engineer or manager to know where a 
"leak " or unnecessary outlay is occurring? If a manager 
does not know where a leak or leaks of a system exist or 
are liable to develop, his retention is unfortunate for his 
employers, to say the least. The operating costs as a whole 
are but the sum of the costs of the separate details, and it 
is upon the details that attention must be centered in any 
attempt to ajBFect the operating cost as a whole. 

Operating costs are always reduced to a unit basis. For 
steam roads certain costs are reduced among others to the 
basis of: 

1. Cost per ton mile, which means the cost of carrying 
a ton of freight one mile. 

2. Cost per passenger mile, which means the cost of carry- 
ing a passenger one mile. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE OPERATING DEPARTMENT. 195 

3. Cost per engine mile, which means the cost of labor, 
fuel, repairs, etc., for each mile run bj a locomotive. 

4. Cost per annum per mile of road, or mile of track, as 
a basis for reducing one of the items of cost of maintenance 
of way and structures. 

Steam roads have a vast amount of other statistical data, 
such as passenger miles per mile of road; ton miles per mile 
of road, which are obtained by dividing the total number of 
miles traveled by all passengers, that is, the ^^ passenger- 
miles " bv the total lens^th of road in sin^rle track ; or the total 
number of " ton-miles " by the length of road in single track. 

I have here indicated a few of the many units to which 
operating costs are reduced by steam roadsi for purposes of 
comparison, as well as to keep themselves posted about the 
details of what they are doing. The freight and passenger 
receipts are also reduced to unit bases, by steam roads. 

For electric railroad operation the most serviceable unit, 
and the one now generally used is the Car Mile Unit. Under 
this system the separate details of the operating costs are re- 
duced to the cost per car mile. The process consists simply in 
dividing the detail costs of the separate items for a given 
period by the total car mileage operated for the same period. 
The car mileage is obtained from the daily reports of the 
motormen and conductors, which show: 

1. The number of the car (or of each car, if trains are 
operated). 

2. The number of trips each car has made. 

3. The division over which the car or cars have run. 

As the length of each division or " run " is laiown, from 
this and with the total number of trips, it is an easy matter 
to ascertain the daily mileage of each car, and therefrom the 
total daily car milea^re. Such car mileage data are tabulated 
and entered in the car mileage books each day by office assist- 
ants, and this work requires but a short time each day. 

To facilitate such work it is a good practice to prepare 
curves, showing the relation between the number of trip.^ 



196 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

and corresponding miles run for each division or ^^ rnn.'^ 
The data are all then readily taken from such curve sheets. 
One who has never employed this method Avill be surprised 
to find how simple and easy it is to keep up such a system, 
and far more surprised at the excellence of the results pro- 
duced, and the value of such data, if the work is intelligently 
and faithfully done. 

For the purpose of facilitating reference to and compari- 
son of such data, the diagram, Plate XI, is shown, on 
which are graphically represented some such details, for a 
road operated by the waiter some years ago, that is the costs 
per car mile for : 

1. Operation and maintenance of power-houses. 

2. The cost of motor repair. 

3. The cost of car repair. 

4. Costs of motormen and conductors. 

5. The receipts per car mile. 

These and other details were taken for each month and 
plotted, using the horizontal axis or abscissa to represent 
timSj while the vertical axis or ordinate was used to represent 
the cost, in cents, per car mile. 

For convenience the different lines of the actual charts, rep- 
resenting the various items, were shown in different colored 
inks. Such accurate pictorial representations are most ex- 
cellent for use with boards of directors. They very soon 
grasp the meaning of the rise or fall in receipts or expenses 
as indicated by the rise or fall of the representative line. In 
this manner the results being attained, as well as compari- 
sons of such results, are apparent and readily comprehended. 
This system is far preferable to the use of long rows of 
figures in parallel columns. 

The advantages of the graphical system of representation 
are manifold. Such a system can be split up and applied to 
every department of a street railroad, or even electric-light- 
ing installation, and the various heads of departments 
charged with the keeping of their records in this manner. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE OPERATING DEPARTMENT. 197 

The effect of compelling the keeping of such detailed graph- 
ical records of each department, by the head of such depart- 
ment, is remarkable and magical. 

The value of a knowledge of such differences will be ap- 
preciated when, as an instance, attention is called to the 
fact that railway and lighting installations generally make 
coal contracts for a period of a year or more. Such contracts 
specify not only the amount of coal to be delivered within 
given periods, but also invariably specify the minimum heat 
value which such coal must have. For the purpose of check- 
ing up such detail, as power-house coal consumption, a chart 
can be prepared similar to that showm on Plate XI, repre- 
senting various details of street railway operation, but show- 
ing on it, by one line, the variations of the kilowatt hours dur- 
ing given periods of time, and by another line, either directly 
above or below it, the variation in pounds of coal burned 
during the same periods. If the station efficiency be practi- 
cally constant, that is, if the same number of pounds of 
coal is burned to produce a kilowatt hour throughout the 
period for which the chart is prepared, and, if all other 
operating details of the plant remain practically the same, 
then the kilowatt hours and the coal consumption line, 
if plotted one above the other, will remain approximately the 
same distance apart, notwithstanding that each will have 
fluctuations depending upon the output. If, however, 
through the use of an inferior quality of coal, the station 
performance becomes less efficient, the result is at once 
shown by the coal consumption line approaching closer to 
the energy line, if it is below the latter, or departing from 
it, if it is the upper line. A graphical method, such as here 
described, is an easy and apparent check upon such power- 
house details. 

The system can be farther extended to show the condition 
of the transmission system. The method of procedure would 
be to ascertain, by a series of dynamometer tests made upon 
a number of cars, the watt hours required per car mile. 



li)8 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

If the equipment be fairly uniform, sucli as regards length 
and weignt of cars, which is generally the case, a sufficiently 
close approximation caii be obtained for the total watt hours 
required by the cars, for a given period, by simply multiply- 
ing the total car mileage by the number of watt hours required 
per car mile. On the same sheet, and immediately over this 
line plot a curve representing the watt hour consumption per 
car mile at the switchboard. These two lines should remain 
approximately parallel to each other. In the event of their 
deviating, it will be well to look to the transmission system, 
such as the trolley-wire or third-rail connections, or the track 
bonds. 

Again, interesting information can be obtained by plotting 
one line representing car miles run, another line representing 
receipts per car mile, and another line passengers carried 
per car mile. If the last item, that is, the passengers per 
car mile, be again subdivided into the transfers per car mile 
and revenue passengers per car mile, some interesting in- 
formation of the operations of the given system will be 
shown. If the subdivision, indicated in the last paragraph, 
be applied to each division of some large system, most valu- 
able information can be obtained, relating to transfer points, 
etc. 

In the construction or operation of a railroad I have always 
adopted the practice of selecting a certain kind and size 
(usually 6" x 8" or 10" x 12") of co-ordinate paper for use 
for such graphic records as I have just described. All of the 
records relating to a given detail or set of items are then 
arranged chronologically and bound together at intervals and 
for given periods. Thus the annual records of the detail 
cost of operation per car mile, for various items, and receipts 
per car mile for the same period a]*e incorporated in a bound 
volume of thirteen sheets of which twelve are for the twelve 
months of the year and the thirteenth is a summary of the 
twelve, representing the variations per month and such 
other additional items as can only be satisfactorily obtained 



ORGANIZATION OF THE OPERATING DEPARTMENT. 199 

and represented for such periods as a month. Such bound 
sets are then supplied to the officers and directors of the 
company. 

Considerable space has been given to some of the manifold 
and important applications of the diagrammatic representa- 
tion of the details of the engineering and operation of rail- 
roads, on account of its great importance in connection with 
work of this kind. The successful conduct or operation of a 
railroad requires, simply : 

First. That education, knowledge, and training or experi 
ence which enables a managing engineer to know the ap- 
proximate conditions which should obtain in a properly 
installed and properly operated railroad or railroads. 

Second. That education, knowledge, and training or ex- 
perience which enables him to penetrate the cause or causes, 
as well as to know how to remedy any abnormal or improper 
conditions so soon as they develop. 

Third. A method of at once detecting abnormal or im- 
proper conditions. 

The first two conditions are acquired by study and experi- 
ence. The third is an almost indispensable adjunct of the 
other two, and is certainly best obtained by the use of the 
diagrammatic or graphic methods we have been discussing. 
As language is but an expression of thoughts, ideas, etc., 
and as the science of mathematics is simply a language, so 
such charts may be said to be a language, of the most terse 
and lucid kind to those who will devote the small amount of 
time required to understand it. 

Reference should also be made to the necessity for peri- 
odic, thorough, and comprehensive systems of tests compris- 
ing every detail of the installation. As a stitch in time saves 
nine, so incipient irregularities revealed by systematic testg 
not only save expensive repairs, and avoid high operating 
costs, but the unpleasantness of unlooked-for breakdowns 
and casualties frequently causing cessation of operation, and 
even loss of life. 



200 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

In these diagrams and charts the writer has given only 
a few of the most interesting and commercially valuable 
applications of a well-known and existing process. Hereto- 
fore the process has been confined chiefly to mathematical, 
laboratory, and other more technical applications, but he 
trusts that the few valuable applications shown of this simple 
system will demonstrate to the reader the value of develop- 
ing habits of thought and research. The result of the proper 
development of such habits is a Creative Mind, which is the 
keystone of the successful engineer. The sides of the arch 
which is maintained by such a keystone must rest on Thought 
and Learning. Learning, without accompanying or subse- 
quent thought, is labor lost. Thought unassisted, and not 
directed by learning, is dangerous. Among the stones of 
the figurative arch we are conceiving must be those of Hard 
Work, Painstaking Eifort, Determination, Application, Up- 
rightness, and Prudence. If the materials for this arch be 
good and allowed to season, the star of success will inevitably 
be found firmly mounted upon the keystone. 



CHAPTER XYIII. 

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS DETERMINING THE MAGNI- 
TUDE AND DETAILS OF A PROPOSED ROAD. 

Among the most important and trying economic ques- 
tions relating to the design, construction, and operation of 
high-speed electric railways reaching well out of the con- 
gested centers of population, w^hich the designing and man- 
aging engineers are called upon to decide, are those relating 
to the character of construction and equipment to be 
adopted, and the character and kind of service to be given. 

These considerations may be stated as follows : 

1. Xumber of tracks to be installed. 

2. Speed, headway, and size of the train units. 

3. Weight of rails and characteristics as affecting costs, 
of ties, ballast, block system, and other details of permanent 
wav. 

4. Character of rolling stock and power stations and trans- 
mission system, together with the location and number and 
character of the passenger stations. 

All of the foregoing are functions of the estimated gross 

earnings of the proposed installation. The earnings must 

be taken as the starting point. At the present time the plans 

of some proposed systems appear to indicate a tendency, in 

some instances, to do too much. There appears to be in some 

cases a lack of appreciation of the proper relations which 

should obtain between fixed charges and the estimated 

gross receipts. In some cases which I have investigated, the 

fixed charges upon installations, as proposed, equal 40 per 

cent, to 50 per cent, of the estimated gross receipts, a margin 

far too close for safety. For the cases of a number of the 

higher class steam roads in operation the fixed charges are 

found to vary between 20 per cent, and 30 per cent, of their 

actual receipts. On account of the demonstrated ability of 

electric systems to develop business more rapidlv than their 

[201] 



202 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECO^'OMICS. 

steam predecessors tlie above ratio of the steam lines may at 
times be exceeded in such cases where the estimated earn- 
ings have been conservatively made by experienced engi- 
neers. It is always best, however, to keep on the safe side 
and let the earnings, after the proposed system is oper- 
ating, do something tow^ard augmenting the installation. 
If this latter course be followed it is safe to say that the 
officers and stockholders of the company will not have nearly 
as many sleepless nights as they otherwise may have should 
they too ambitiously " reach out and lead." In addition, 
there will probably be less doing in the receivership and 
absorbing and reorganization businesses. 

Generally speaking, the idea should be to install no more 
tracks than can be kept busy safely and satisfactorily, taking 
care of the business in sight and which apparently will ac- 
crue from the first few years of development on account 
of the increased or improved facilities proposed to be given. 

In applying the foregoing statement, the question of speed 
must never be lost sight of. Relatively high speed, being 
the raison d'etre for these roads, must be maintained. Again, 
in attempting to get as much out of a pair of tracks (single- 
track roads being out of the question) as possible, it must 
not be lost sight of that Avhile the capacity of a given instal- 
lation with a given schedule speed can be increased by grad- 
ually adding train units up to a certain point, a limit will be 
reached, after which, on account of the headway require- 
ments, any increase in the number of units will necessitate a 
reduction of the schedule speed, and if carried far enough, 
the carrying capacity will be actually reduced. Any material 
reduction of schedule speed wdll probably also cause a loss of 
traffic. If a schedule speed of 30 miles per hour has been 
determined upon as that which will be required for a given 
territory, the idea should be to ascertain the maximum 
capacity of say two tracks for the proposed road when operat- 
ing at that schedule speed. If it be ascertained that the 
two tracks will not be sufficient, at the determined schedule. 



ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS OF A PROPOSED ROAD. 203 

to carry the maximiiin estimated business, then a third track, 
to be used for express trains going one way during the morn- 
ing and the other way in the evening, should be estimated 
upon. It will generally be found that wherever a third 
track is warranted the conditions will generally admit of 
the small additional outlay required for a fourth track. The 
additional costs are those required for the relatively slight 
additional graduation (earth and rock-work) and the addi- 
tional rails, ties, and ballast, and the labor of installation. 
In cases of supplying the suburbs of cities as E^ew York, 
Boston, Paris, London, Berlin, Chicago, and San Francisco, 
and similar cities, it will generally be a question of deter- 
mining whether two tracks or four tracks should be installed, 
and the safe and conservative solution will always be arrived 
at by considering the comparative ratio of the different fixed 
charges which two, three, or four tracks will impose to the 
probable gross receipts, estimating the gross receipts for the 
conditions which will exist when the road commences oper- 
ation. In some instances, where a rapid growth and de- 
velopment is apparent, as about ]^ew York City and London, 
such future development must be allowed for in the original 
design. As an illustration of such comparisons, I shall as- 
sume a set of conditions about as they will be found to arise, 
as follows : 

Suppose the estimated gross receipts of a proposed road 
are $900,000 per annum. Suppose, furthermore, that a two- 
track road could be installed to do this business for $5,000,- 
000, and that a four-track road would cost $6,000,000. The 
fixed charges for the two-track road, at 5 per cent., will be 
$250,000 per year, while on the same basis, those for the 
four-track road will be $300,000. The annual operating 
expenses, taxes, and insurance would.be about $500,000 for 
the conditions assumed for the two-track road, leaving for 
the two-track road $400,000 for fixed charges, etc. Deduct- 
ing the $250,000 fixed charges of the two-track road would 
leave $150,000 annually to be applied to unforeseen contin- 
gencies, betterments, and the sinking fund account. 



204 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

If we assume tliat we will run approximately tlie same 
number of train units between the termini daily for the four- 
track road at the start, the operating costs will be about the 
same. In order to justify such an assumption it would, of 
course, be necessary to reduce slightly the schedule of the 
two-track road, which can at times be done. 

For the case of the four-track road we will then have left, 
after deducting say $525,000 for the annual cost of oper- 
ation, taxes, and insurance, the sum of $375,000 for fixed 
charges, etc. If we now deduct the fixed charges of $300,- 
000 we have left $75,000 for unforeseen contingencies, bad 
times, betterments, and sinking fund, a margin which is 
somewhat too small for the solid comfort of the bondhold- 
ers and the stockholders, especially that of the stockholders. 
In fact, an enterprise starting upon its career upon the last 
basis might v/ell be called a " receiver's delight," a '^ re- 
organizer's joy," or a " stockholder's obsequies " installation. 
A four-track installation for the case we have assumed 
would only be ju.stified where a great immediate develop- 
ment along the line of the road was apparent. Even then 
the engineer should prepare statements of both conditions, 
as above outlined, and submit them to the bankers or un- 
derwriters so that they will have full knowledge of the 
relative conditions and contin2:encies. 

The development of large cities and the consequent ap- 
parent exceeding of the capacity limits of some existing rapid 
transit or urban rapid transit systems has offered oppor- 
tunity for much lay, semi-professional, and even so-called 
engineering criticism of the shortsightedness of the origi- 
nators of such transportation systems in not installing more 
tracks at the time of the oris^inal construction. If such 
critics will investigate they will ascertain that, generally 
speaking, such roads have been hard pressed for many years 
to make ends meet, and that they are only now reaping their 
hard-earned fruits. A little thought will also show that had 
such systems at the outset provided installations adequate 



ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS OF A PROPOSED ROAD. 205 

to do the business they are now receiving, they would cer- 
tainly, in years past, have suffered financial difficulties to 
state it mildly. As a general rule promoters and financiers 
are fairly healthy, and in cases where they are not entirely 
so there are other and milder means than that of placing 
large amounts of money in relatively certain jeopardy, by 
reaching out and leading, of recruiting their exhausted 
energies. So much for the permanent way. 

It is apparent that the matter of schedule speeds, as re- 
lated to costs of operation, is not generally understood. 

The schedule speed may be a large factor in determining 
the commercial success or failure of an enterprise. As an 
illustration, by referring to Table III, we see that the watt- 
hours per ton-mile, allowing a stop every two miles, required 
for a 40-mile per hour schedule, are 142, while for a 35-mile 
per hour schedule there are required about 99 watt-hours 
per ton-mile. If we assume, as an average, a road 30 miles 
long, over which are made 100 round trips per day, with 
cars weighing 45 tons each, and assuming a loss of 25 per 
cent, between the motors and the main power station switch- 
board and taking the cost of energy at $.006 per kilowatt 
1 1 100X30X2X45X0.006X365X142 cti -r -< ocro oa 
hour we have o 7^ x looo =^111,952.80 as 

the cost of operating the 40-mile per hour schedule with 

. 1 ., il00x30x 2x45x0.006x365x99 a>^o r^^i nry 
single car units and o 75 x lOOO =$ ^ 8,051.60 

as the cost of operating the 35-mile per hour schedule with 
single units. 

The difference between these costs is $33,901.20, which, at 
5 per cent., is the interest on $678,024. For a road 30 
miles in length, the time between termini for the 35-mile 
schedule would be 51.4 minutes, while the time for the 40- 
mile schedule would be 45 minutes; a difference per trip 
of 6 . 4 minutes. This matter is also Avell brought out in the 
" run curves " shoA\Ti in preceding chapters and in the plates. 

The very best materials and construction only should be 
employed for the permanent way and the rolling stock, as it 



206 ELECTRIC RAILWAY ECONOMICS. 

is only by so doing that the maximum safety can be assured 
to the traveling public, which must always predominate in 
considering costs of construction. Accidents are always 
costly, as are also conditions of uncertain operation and 
delays. The public will not patronize a road upon which 
accidents are frequent or whereon uncertainty of operation 
or delay is at all marked. Inferior permanent way and 
rolling stock is, therefore, equivalent to burning the candle 
at both ends on account of the natural reduction of receipts, 
for the reasons stated above, and the additional increase of 
operating and maintenance costs which always maintain on 
poorly engineered and poorly installed railways. 

Regarding the determination of the details of the passen- 
ger stations. Elsewhere in this book, it has been brought out 
that the location of the stations may have a material in- 
fluence upon the business which the road will do, depending 
upon whether the stations are located so as to render them 
easy of access or otherwise. The matters of the general 
design, size, finish and specific details of the station will 
have to be determined separately for each case. 

In designing the stations, however, the object should be to 
provide stations whereon the annual aggregate salaries of 
ticket sellers and attendants will be a minimum. If ticket of- 
fices be placed along each side of the roadway at each station 
this will not be the case. The stations between the tracks on 
some elevated systems, known as " island stations," are ex- 
amples of minimum operation and maintenance cost idea. 
About half the annual attendance is required for such sta- 
tions as compared with those on each side of the tracks. The 
objection sometimes urged against the ^^ island station " 
system is that people who are so disposed can ride back and 
forth any number of times after paying a single fare. 

In connection with the development of the engineering 
details, of a road with which the writer has been connected, 
the tracks of which will be upon a private right of way 
throughout, and furthermore, upon earth or rock cuts or fills, 
devised and recommended the following station plan. 



ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS OF A PROPOSED ROAD. 207 

Wherever the roadway is on an embankment and above 
the grade of the streets, the station is to be constructed by 
providing under the roadway and approximately at right 
angles to the tracks, a passage-way or tunnel extending en- 
tirely across and under the railroad roadway and 50 feet or 
more, as may be required, in width. The width of this pas- 
S£.ge-way would, of course, be along the length of the tracks. 
In the center of this passage-way is to be one ticket office, 
provided with proper approaches, from each side of the road- 
way ; and inside of and beyond the ticket office are to be wait- 
ing-rooms, etc., and the stairs ascending to the island plat- 
forms between the tracks. This undergroimd passage-way is 
to be of the concrete-steel construction. Where the tracks are 
in a cut, at station locations, and consequently beneath the 
surface of the streets, the design provided for a concrete- 
steel structure over and entirely across the tracks, wherein 
is located one ticket office, as before, with waiting-rooms, 
etc., inside the ticket office, and stairs descending to the 
island platforms. Stations of this kind are worth about 
$8,000 each. 

It is evident that the same plan can readily be used for a 
two-track road. 

Where a high speed electric railway crosses a public high- 
way or other railroad, either above or below the grade of the 
other road, the design of such a crossing, especially where it 
is below, and consists of a subway of greater or less length, 
may exercise considerable effect upon the subsequent cost of 
operation of the system as it may determine the limiting 
length of the cars where train are used. Elsewhere in this 
book I have stated that a high-speed road should be designed 
throughout as to permit of the operation of any of the cars 
now used by steam railroads and gave my reasons for such 
a construction. There is, however, another reason of es- 
sentially an economic kind. As an illustration, suppose 
that upon a given road it has been found that on account 
of the dimensions of part of the subways it will not be 
possible to use a car more than forty feet in length, and 



208 ELECTRIC RAIL^^AY ECONOMICS^ 

tliat train units of three such cars will be required. It 
is apparent that train units consisting of two sixty-foot 
cars would carry the same number of people as the three- 
forty-foot cars, and, allowing one conductor or guard per 
car, at an operating cost of one man per train unit less. 
It is easy to see that if train units be operated for any con- 
siderable part of the day, the length of the cars becomes a 
most important consideration and economic factor of the sub- 
sequent costs of operation. Mistakes of the kind have oc- 
curred and are now practically the cause of considerable addi- 
tional fixed costs of operation, which could have been avoided 
had such apparently small details been given that thorough 
and competent consideration at the outset which their econ- 
omic importance demands. 

The marvelous activity for some years past in the various 
branches of electric railroading and kindred engineering and 
financial enterprises has required the frequent retention of 
engineers and experts for the purposes of making investiga- 
tions, reports and recommendations. Some of these reports 
are remarkable for what they do not contain. When a banker, 
financier, or investor employs an engineer to make a report, it 
appears to me that while he may be interested to know exist- 
ing conditions, and the statistics showing results from roads 
approximately similar to the proposed enterprise he may have 
in hand, he is essentially trying to find out '' what to do/' 
That is, shall he reorganize an existing company, and if so, 
how much money will be required to do it, and for what, and 
what will be the commercial and economic result of such re- 
organization and outlay, and w^hat will be the best plan of re- 
organization ? Or if it be a new enterprise the question 
simply is : Shall he " go in '' and is it " a good safe thing ? '^ 
and if so, why? 

Engineers or experts in making reports often appear to 
forget or ignore the fact that the essential value of their 
reports lie in the conclusions, and a brief statement of the 
bases for these conclusions. The body of a report may con- 



ECONOMIC COySIDERATIOXS OF A PROPOSED ROAD. 209 

tain as mucli statistical detail and general data as may be 
required to pad out the document to make its outward ap- 
pearance justify the fee, but the client, upon receiving the 
document will generally search the index for that part of the 
report giving the conclusions, and the bases therefor. Often 
the search is in vain. 

Among some reports w^hich have recently been submitted 
to me for analysis w^as one consisting of 97 pages of legal 
cap size paper, and literally bristling with statistics, etc., but 
which did not contain one positive conclusion or recommenda- 
tion. The expressions '^ it would appem^ " and '' it seems " 
which have so long and so faithfully served the members of 
the legal profession have no business in the vocabulary of men 
representing themselves as railway engineers or experts. 
14 



APPENDIX I. 



The following specifications prepared by the author for a high-speed 
electric road between New York and Port Chester have been added: 

SPECIFICATIONS. 

The work to be done consists in supplying all of the material and 
labor necessary for the construction and equipment of the railroad of the 
^eio York & Port Chester Railroad Company, as provided in the fol- 
lowing specifications. 

The specifications are grouped in subdivisions, as follows: 

PAGE. 

1. General Description of the Line of the Road 211 

2. General Description of the Plan of Construction and Equip- 

ment 213 

3. Graduation 214 

4. Roadbed 217 

5. Bridges and crossings 222 

6. Equipment 226 

7. Stations 232 

8. General Clauses 234 

I. General Description. 

The railroad to be built commences at a point in the Borough of the 
Bronx, at or near the intersection of the elevated railroad with One 
Hundred and Forty-third street, and runs thence easterly, approxi- 
mately paralleling One Hundred and Forty-third street, to the easterly 
side of the Southern boulevard in the Borough of the Bronx; from this 
point curving, and thence continuing in a northeasterly direction, ap- 
proximatel}' paralleling Whitlock avenue, of the borough of the Bronx, 
to the intersection of said Whitlock avenue with Westchester avenue, 
also in the borough of the Bronx, continuing thence northeasterly and 
approximately paralleling West Farms road (on the west side, however, 
of West Farms road), to Rodman place, also in the Borough of the 
Bronx; curving thence to the right, crossing West Farms road, con- 
tinuing northeasterly and approximately paralleling Morris Park 

[211] 



212 APPENDIX. 

avenue in the Borough of the Bronx, to Bear Swamp Eoad; continuing 
thence northeasterly through the Borough of the Bronx to a point near 
the intersection of Kingsbridge Road and Fifth avenue, of Mount 
Vernon; continuing thence northeasterly through the city of Mount 
Vernon, village of Pelham, city of New Rochelle, village of Larchmont, 
village of Mamaroneck, town of Rye, through the village of Port 
Chester, all in Westchester County, State of New York, to a point on 
State line, between the States of New York and Connecticut, all as 
shown on map accompanying this specification, marked Exhibit No. 1. 

The railroad is to be built upon a private right of way to be owned by 
the company, except along such portions of its route where public and 
existing streets, avenues, and highways will be crossed, at which points 
the crossings are to be made over or under the grades of such streets, 
avenues, and highways, as shown on the profile forming a part of these 
specifications. 

The crossings of streets, avenues, and highways are to be made with 
concrete-steel arch bridges where the tracks are overhead. Where the 
tracks are underneath, the crossings are to be made of the concrete-steel 
slab construction, concrete-steel columns being erected between each of 
the tracks and the outside of the roadway, upon which and the abut- 
ments the concrete slabs are to be laid. Should it, for any reason, be 
found impracticable or undesirable to use the concrete-steel slab con- 
struction the concrete-arch construction may be used for the over grade 
crossings. 

Commencing at the southern terminus at or near One Hundred and 
Forty-third street, as above defined, the roadway shall consist of four 
tracks, which four tracks shall be carried easterly and northeasterly, as 
above described, to a point at or near the southeast corner of Bronx 
Park, in the Borough of the Bronx. Continuing thence from a point at 
or near the southeast corner of Bronx Park, in the Borough of the Bronx, 
four tracks will be built on the line as heretofore described, and shown 
on accompanying drawings, to the terminal station, at or near the inter- 
section of Poningo and King streets, in the village of Port Chester, in 
the town of Rye, Westchester county, New York State. 

A two-track branch line is to be run from the main line from a point 
at or near the southeast corner of Bronx Park, and running in a south- 
easterly direction to a point at or near Clason's Point, situate on the 
East river, in the Borough of the Bronx. The total length of the road- 
way, including the main and branch lines, will be about twenty-four 
and nine-tenths (24.9) miles. 

There will be, approximately, 17.37 miles of main line, four-track 
construction, extending from or near the southeast corner of Bronx 



APPENDIX. 213 

Park, in the Borough of the Bronx, northeasterly to the terminal 
station at or near Poningo and King streets, in Port Chester. 

There will be, approximately, 3.51 miles of main line, four-track 
construction, extending from or near the southeast corner of Bronx 
Park, in the Borough of the Bronx, southw esterly in the Borough of the 
Bronx, to the terminal at or near One Hundred and Forty-third street, 
as above described. 

There will be, approximately, 2.8 miles of branch line, double-track 
construction, extending from or near the southeast corner of Bronx 
Park, to the terminal of the Clason's Point branch. 

The total length of roadway from the Bronx terminal to the State 
line, including the branch line, will be about 24.9 miles. 

There will be, approximately, 91 miles of single track, 84.8 miles 
of which will be on the main line, and 5.6 miles of which will be on the 
branch line. 

There will be about five miles of additional single track for use as 
third and fourth tracks about the terminals and some of the stations, 
and in and about the storage yards, car-barns, etc. 

2. General Description of the Plan of Construction and Equip- 
ment. 

As already stated, the tracks are to be laid upon a private right of 
way to be owned by the company. The tracks are to be laid having a 
distance between centers of tracks of thirteen (13) feet. The gauge of 
the tracks is to be the standard gauge, that is, four feet eight and one- 
half inches. The rails to be used shall weigh not less than ninety (90) 
pounds per lineal yard, and shall be of the standard section adopted 
by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The rail shall be laid 
upon the best white oak or pine ties, spaced not more than two feet 
between the centers. The ties shall be laid on ten inches of crushed 
stone or ballast, and the crushed stone shall be brought up between the 
t:es to a point not less than two inches from the toj) thereof. The 
ballast shall be evenly distributed under each track. For two-track 
construction the subgrade shall be not less than twenty-six (26) feet 
in width, and for four-track construction the subgrade shall be not 
less than fifty- two (52) feet in width. 

Proper means shall be employed to drain the roadway throughout, 
and proper provision shall be made along the line of the roadway by 
the erection of culverts of proper size to provide for the flow of water 
of any existing or necessary additional water-ways or streams, which 
shall be crossed by the line of the road. 



214 APPENDIX. 

There shall be installed along the line of the road a block-signal 
system of the most approved design, preference being given to such a 
system as will automatically arrest the motion of the train in the 
event of the operator inadvertently or otherwise passing the signal at 
danger. The blocks shall be of such length as will be most conducive 
to the best results of operation under the schedules as herein described. 

Telephone lines shall be installed on the company's right of way 
with the latest improved instruments at every station. A third rail 
of ample cross section, and the ends of which shall be properly 
electrically connected, shall be installed along the side of, and at a 
proper distance from, each of the tracks. 

The equipment for this road shall consist of seventy-five passenger 
cars, fifty- five of which shall be motor cars — the rest to be equipped 
for use as trailers or intermediate cars. 

In addition to the seventy-five passenger cars, the equipment shall 
include ten box cars for carrying express and freight shipments, five 
of which shall be motor cars. 



3. Graduation. 

The graduation shall include all excavations, embankments and other 
work required for the formation of the roadbed, station grounds, yard and 
supply works, ditches and drains about or contiguous to the road, the 
foundation pits of culverts and bridges, for reconstructing public or 
private highways or roads where the same are destroyed, changed, or 
crossed by the formation of the railroad; changing the direction of 
channels and streams, or water-ways, and all other excavations and 
embankments connected with or incident to the construction of the 
road. 

All work shall be done in a neat and workmanlike manner, and at 
all times subject to the direction and authority of the New York and 
Port Chester Railroad Company and its agents or representatives. 

Materials from all excavations shall usually be deposited in embank- 
ments. 

In rock excavations, material shall be taken out to one foot below 
subgrade, and filled in again to subgrade with selected rock. 

Where embankments are made on side hills or upon space of old fills 
or embankments, steps or benches shall be cut in slopes to prevent the 
new embankment from slipping, and wherever quick sand, swamps, or 
springs exist under proposed embankments, the material must be ex- 
cavated, and the embankment started from firm foundation. 

Etnhankments. — Embankments shall be made from the excavated 



APPENDIX. 215 

material as herein specified, and, as far as possible, started at the 
base — the full width indicated by the slope stakes — and built to the 
slope in layers, each not exceeding three feet in thickness. 

In depositing filling material against abutments, piers, or walls, 
such filling material shall always be dumped away from the masonry, 
never toward it; as the shrinkage of the material is always in the 
direction in which it flows when dumped, especial care must always 
be taken to cause the shrinkage thrust to be away from the masonry 
structures. Where material is tamped or rammed after dumping, the 
ramming shall be done by vertical blows. 

Where there is any special choice of material, the best material 
should be used at the foot of slopes, on slopes, and on tops of embank- 
ments. 

Borroio pits. — Borrow pits, when used, shall be confined to such 
forms as the railroad company may direct, and in all cases a berme of 
not less than ten feet shall be left outside of the foot of an embank- 
ment, and one of not less than three feet wide inside of the railroad 
company's property line. Side slopes of borrow pits shall be subject 
to the direction of the railroad company. 

The borrow pits shall be uniform in width and regular in form, 
with provisions for sufficient fall, and for proper drainage to the next 
borrow pit or nearest water course adjoining the railroad land. Borrow 
pits shall not be gouged out so as to unnecessarily disfigure the land. 

No borrow pit shall be made in or around the stations or railroad 
yards. 

Excavation. — The contractor will be permitted to adopt the open 
cut or such other methods of excavation as he may prefer, with the 
following conditions: 

1st. Ready access must at all times be given to all fire alarm boxes 
and fire hydrants along the line of this work. 

2d. No two consecutive streets shall be closed at the same time. 

3d. Through the tract of land now known as Morris Park, situated 
between Bear Swamp road and Williamsbridge road, in the Borough of 
the Bronx, New York City, the contractor must have the tracks upon 
which the horses run, to the extent of the full width of such tracks 
which will be crossed by the line of this railroad, as such tracks now 
exist, in condition that the Spring and Autumn races can be carried 
on as they now are carried on. That is, there shall be no interrup- 
tion of the races on account of the prosecution of this work. The 
contractor shall also leave each race track in Morris Park, crossed 
by the line of this road, in as good condition as such tracks now 
are for racing purposes, when the work shall be completed, by providing 



216 APPENDIX. 

under crossings, as herein provided, and back filling with the same 
material as is now there. The work of crossing the race tracks and 
finishing the work upon the said tracks shall be done to the satis- 
faction of the owners thereof. 

Such portions of the Quintard and Palmer estates as are located on 
South Main street, in the village of Port Chester, shall be left as they 
now are when the work is completed, that is, should an open-cut ex- 
cavation be there employed, the roadway shall be constructed and com- 
pleted and the cut then back filled and the surface left as found. The 
contractor may tunnel through the Quintard and Palmer estates and 
under the Morris Park track should he desire. 

In all cases of tunnels, the space for the passage of the cars shall 
be fifty-four feet wide (clear inside width), by eighteen feet in height, 
from the top of the subgrade to the lowest part of the roof, in the 
event of the arch construction being employed. 

The construction of any and all tunnels shall be like that of the 
under crossings as herein provided. 

Slopes. — The character of the ground shall determine the side slopes 
on embankments and excavations. The slopes must, in all cases, be 
such as to provide a firm, solid bank, which will not break loose or 
slide or slip on account of vibrations, or rains, or other causes. In all 
cases of loose or uncertain embankments or excavating, the contractor 
shall give the sides such slopes and employ such retaining walls as 
will produce a structure of the most stable and substantial kind. 

Removal of material. — All excavated material not required for em- 
bankments or otherwise, in connection with this work, shall be removed 
by the contractor. Such removal shall be done as the work progresses 
and all dumping, etc., shall be done in conformity with all municipal 
or other local and United States regulations, relating to the disposal 
of such materials within the territory within the jurisdiction of such 
municipalities or local bodies or the United States government. 

Piling. — Wherever piles are used, whether in foundations, or for the 
purpose of sustaining any part of the roadway or structures, the piles 
shall be of good quality of sound white oak or other acceptable timber. 
The piles must be straight, and be not less than ten inches in diameter 
at the small end, and fourteen inches in diameter at the large end. 
The piles shall be of such length, as to, in all cases, form a safe and 
solid foundation for any structure which may be built upon them. 

Piles shall be driven with a 2,0OQ-pound hammer, with a fall of 
twenty-five feet, and must be driven to refusal, or until the total settle- 
ment under the last two blows does not exceed one inch. 

Wherever pile shoes are necessary, they must be provided by the 
contractor. 



APPENDIX. 217 

4, Roadbed. 

When the graduation is completed to subgrade, the ballast shall 
then be deposited upon the subgrade. 

Ballast. — The ballast shall be of the best crushed stone or other ma- 
terial equally as good. The right is reserved to the contractor to obtain 
the ballast by crushing such stone as may be required to be excavated 
for the construction of the railroad wherever such excavated stone shall 
be of such quality as will produce a ballast equal to the best crushed 
stone ballast as herein provided for. Such stone, however, shall be 
crushed so that no stone shall have a greater diameter thaii three inches 
in any direction. The contractor shall not use in the construction of this 
road any ballast which will produce clouds of dust in the operation of 
the road. 

Cross tics. — The standard cross ties are to be eight (8) feet long, 
six (6) inches wide, and eight (8) inches deep, and to be laid as here- 
tofore provided, with not more than two feet between the centers of 
ties. All cross ties are to be laid at right angles to the center line of 
the track. All ties are to be evenly spaced, and the line must be kept 
on the east ends of the ties. At all joints, selected ties shall be used. 

On all viaducts, or in cases where ballast is not used directly under 
the ties, the ties shall be sawed, having the opposite faces exactly 
parallel. The dimensions of said sawed ties shall be six (6) inches, 
by eight (8) inches by eight (8) feet. 

Exact length ties shall be used in all cases where special work of 
any kind is required or installed. In all cases where special work shall 
be required, extra length ties shall be used to such extent and shall be 
of such quality as to produce a construction equal to that of the 
highest class railroad construction used in this country. 

The contractor shall also provide extra ties of ample length to pro- 
vide for the proper mounting or anchoring of the third-rail insulators 
or pedestals. 

The ties used in this construction shall be either the best white oak 
hewed ties, or the best quality of heart yellow pine tie. Should yellow 
pine be used, they will only be permitted on the tangent or straight 
portions of the track. On all curves, and in and about all special 
work, the best white oak ties shall be used. 

Rail composition, length, etc. — The rails shall be of a uniform length, 
which shall not be less than thirty-three feet at a temperature of sixty 
degrees (60°) Fahrenheit. 

Short rails, to an amount not exceeding 10 per cent, of each ship- 
ment, the length of which, however, shall not be less than twenty-four 
feet, may be used. 

All ISo. 1 rails shall be entirely free from flaws and other defects, 



218 APPENDIX. 

and must be sawed square at the ends, and all burrs made by the saw 
shall be carefully removed by filing or otherwise, particularly under 
the head and on top of the flange. All No. 1 rails shall be shipped in 
cars by themselves, and shall be identified by some characteristic mark. 

" Seconds," or No. 2 rails, to the extent of 5 per cent, of the order 
will be received. All seconds shall be kept separate from No. 1 rails, 
and shall be shipped in separate cars and be marked with an individual 
or characteristic mark. 

The requirements for all seconds shall be the same as for No. 1 
rails, except that they may be accepted with a flaw in the head not 
exceeding ^ne-quarter of an inch. The company reserves the right to 
have all rails loaded in the presence of its inspectors. 

In all places where it shall be necessary to bend or curve the rail, 
all such bending shall be done with an approved bender, and in the 
most approved and v.'orkmanlike manner. No springing of rails will 
be allowed, and wherever necessary to cut the rail, such cutting shall 
be done with a saw and the ends thereof afterward filed down to a 
smooth surface so as to avoid all burrs, etc. The rails shall be set 
throughout on a tie plate placed on each tie, and the said tie plate 
having ribs running longitudinally with the cross tie. AH rails shall 
be laid with the proper opening at the joints. 

Wherever rails are laid during the extreme heat of summer all joints 
shall be laid tight; and if laid during the extreme cold of winter, they 
shall be laid one-fourth inch open. When the temperature of the air 
is at the freezing pointy joints shall be laid open three-sixteenths inch; 
at fifty degrees, open one-eighth inch; at seventy-five degrees, open one- 
sixteenth inch, and for all intermediate temperatures, the figures above 
given corresponding to the nearest temperature. Rails shall be laid 
so as to have a firm bearing on each tie, and shall stand plum on the 
tie. Each splice must be spiked to the ties through the slots provided 
for that purpose. Each joint shall have not less than six (6) bolt 
holes, and all nut locks shall be properly applied. 

The composition of the steel used for the rails shall be subject to 
the approval of the railroad company; qualitative and quantitative 
analyses of the composition of all steel used for the rails for this rail- 
road shall be submitted to the railroad company when demanded by 
the railroad company. 

Spiking. — The rails shall be spiked to each tie by four spikes, the 
inside spikes shall be opposite to each other, and the outside spikes 
diagonally opposite to the inside spikes. All spikes shall be driven 
straight and firm, so that the heads will have a good bearing on the 
rail base. Care shall be taken in spiking not to hit the rail with the 



APPENDIX. 219 

spiking hammer, neither shall the rail be hit with the hammer to 
drive it into position. All tracks shall be laid with broken joints, not 
less than twelve feet apart. All joints shall be suspended joints. 

Gauges. — All track gauges must be correct, and make the gauge 
exactly four feet eight and one-half inches. The gauge line on the rail 
is the point on the head, where the curve on the top surface of the rail 
joins the side of the head. On curves of over four degrees, the gauge 
of the track shall be widened to one-thirty-second inch for each degree 
of curvature over four degrees. 

Line. — The line shall be perfectly straight on tangents, and all 
curves shall be of the logarithmic, spiral, or transition type. On all 
curves an approved design of guard rail shall be used on both sides 
of each rail, which guard rail shall commence at least fifty feet from 
each end of the curve, and extend completely around the curve. 

In general the elevation of the outer rail on curves shall be one 
inch for every degree of curvature, with a maximum elevation of seven 
inches. The full elevation of the curve should not be given at the 
P. C. or P. T. The point at which to commence the full elevation is 
approximately where the tangent offset from the tangents at each end 
of the curves equals one inch. 

Surfacing. — In surfacing the track, the ties shall be tamped one 
shovel width inside of the rail. The ends of the ties outside of the 
rail shall be uniformly tamped to a solid and uniform bearing. On 
tangents, the tops of the rails must be exactly level, except in approach- 
ing curves, where the rail leading to the outer rail on the curve must 
be made higher than the inner rail, at the rate of one inch to every 
thirty-three feet, so as to meet the full elevation given in the curve. 

Special work. — Trailing crossovers shall be installed at points 
approximately five miles apart at each set of tracks, but at such points 
as the railroad company may direct. At all the principal stations, 
such as New Rochelle, Mount Vernon, Mamaroneck, and the termini, 
trailing branch-offs shall be installed connecting the main line with 
such branch line tracks as may be determined upon, which, however, 
shall not exceed two extra tracks at each of the principal stations, 
and four extra tracks at each of the termini. 

All special work used for crossovers, turnouts, and side tracks in 
and about the yards, car-barns, etc., shall be of the best material and 
workmanship equal to that of the best manufacture in the country. 
No cast iron frogs, joints, or mates shall be used. All special work, 
such as crossovers, branch-offs, spurs, etc., shall be protected by heavy 
wooden stringer guard rails, braced and anchored and fastened to the 
ties in the most substantial and approved manner. 



220 APPENDIX. 

An extra track, connected to the south-bound track of either the 
local or express tracks, as may be determined by the railroad com« 
pany, having a capacity for twenty cars, shall be constructed imme- 
diately north of the station locatea and constructed in Morris Park, 
as herein defined. 

An extra track, having a capacity of not less than six cars, shall be 
constructed at each express station. 

Loops at terminals. — At each of the terminals on the main line, 
together with the terminal of the branch line, the contractor shall 
install loops of ample radii to permit easy passage of the train units. 
These loops shall be so installed as to facilitate to the utmost the 
moving of the train units in and about the termini. The contractor 
shall install at each terminus in such manner as will most facilitate 
the operation, additional tracks sufficient to store at least three trains 
of four cars each. These storage tracks shall be so des'gned and 
installed that the extra trains may be safely, quickly, and easily run 
out and placed in service whenever it shall be necessary. 

Rapid Transit Suhway connections. — At or near the southeast corner 
of Bronx park, at the point finally determined upon by the railroad 
company, the contractor shall make provision for the depression or 
elevation of such of the tracks of the New York and Port Chester 
Railroad, as will be finally determined upon for use for the express 
service. The object thereof is to provide for the connection, avoiding 
crossing at the grades thereof the remaining tracks of the railroad as 
herein provided, of the two express tracks of the New York and Port 
Chester railroad with the tracks of the New York Eapid Transit Sub- 
way, at or near the crossing of the said Papid Transit tracks with One 
Hundred and Seventy-seventh street in the Borough of the Bronx. 

The Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company will install two 
extra tracks on its structure for the purpose of making this con- 
nection. These tracks will be installed by commencing at a point ap- 
proximately One Hundred and Seventy-fifth street, and running thence 
northwardly on a gradual descending grade, so that the two extra 
tracks will pass under the Rapid Transit Subway structure at or about 
One Hundred and Seventy-seventh street. Provision shall be made by 
the contractor and he shall connect two of the tracks of the New York 
and Port Chester railroad with the rapid transit subway tracks at or 
near One Hundred and Seventy-seventh street, where the two extra rapid 
transit tracks terminate, as herein 'Jaove stated. Provision shall also 
be made by the contractor to enable the New York and Port Chester 
Railroad Company to connect its tracks with the proposed east side 
branch of the New York Rapid Transit Subway. The contractor, how- 



APPENDIX. 221 

ever, will not be expected or required to make any provision for the 
connection of the proposed east side branch extending beyond the 
terminus at One Hundred and Forty-third street, as herein provided. 
He will be expected and required to make such provision that this con- 
nection can be made when the east side branch of the New York 
Rapid Transit Subway shall be under construction. 

The contractor will also provide and make a physical connection 
between the tracks of the Xew York and Port Chester Railroad Com- 
pany at some point to be determined upon between East One Hundred 
and Forty-first street and East One Hundred and Forty-third street, in 
the borough of the Bronx, and the tracks of the Manhattan Elevated 
Railroad Company, where such tracks of the Manhattan Elevated 
Railroad Company cross East One Hundred and Forty-first street and 
East One Hundred and Forty-third street, in the Borough of the Bronx. 
This physical connection between the tracks of the Xew York and Port 
Chester Railroad Company and the tracks of the Manhattan Elevated 
Railroad Company to be independent of the terminal and terminal tracks 
of the Xew York and Port Chester Railroad Company to be provided by 
the contractor, in the Borough of the Bronx, at some point between 
East One Hundred and Forty-first street and East One Hundred and 
Forty-third street as herein provided and as shown on the accom- 
panying map, Exhibit I. 

The details of the design and construction of the connections with the 
Rapid Transit Subway, and the Manhattan Elevated Railroad as herein 
provided, shall be submitted to and approved by the Xew York and Port 
Chester Railroad Company before any work shall be commenced thereon. 
Avoidance of crossing all tracks at grade. — In and about junction 
po'nts and at all termini, the contractor shall so design and install 
the Avork that the express and local tracks will not cross each other 
at grade. In all such cases, one set of tracks shall be depressed or 
elevated should it be necessary to pass across the other set of tracks. 
As the express tracks are to be connected with the tracks of the 
Rapid Transit Subway Company at or near One Hundred and Seventy- 
seventh street and Boston Post Road, in the Borough of the Bronx, and 
as the express tracks are to be continued southward to the southern 
terminal, the contractor shall, at a point on the express tracks between 
One Hundred and Seventy-seventh street and Bear Swamp road, pro- 
vide for the extension of the express tracks southwardly beyond the 
connection with the Rapid Transit Subway tracks at or near One Hun- 
dred and Seventy-seventh street, as herein provided, by constructing 
two extra tracks, connecting with the express tracks, and carrying these 
two extra tracks at the same grade as the local tracks to the southern 
terminus, and thereby allowing the two express tracks, connecting with 



222 APPENDIX. 

the Rapid Transit Subway tracks at or near One Hundred and Seventy- 
seventh street and Boston Post Road, as herein provided, to pass over or 
under the express tracks continued southwardly to the southern 
terminus in the same manner as the two said tracks will pass over 
or under the local tracks, as herein provided. 

The connection of the branch line to Clason's Point, as herein pro- 
vided, with the express or local tracks, as may be finally determined, 
shall be made without crossing any of the other tracks at grade. 

The tracks of the branch line shall be connected with the main line 
tracks with a Y connection so as to provide for a continuous service 
from either the northern or southern terminus of the main lines to the 
end of the branch line. 

All designs for connections and crossings, avoiding grade crossings, 
shall be approved by the railroad company before the work thereon is 
commenced. 

Bonding. — The track and third rail shall be bonded Avith the best 
bonds obtainable, such bonds to be of a size sufficient, and so made and 
installed that one square inch of radiating surface shall be allowed for 
each 800 amperes passing through the bond. 

Fencing. — The entire right of way shall be fenced in. The fencing 
shall be of a strong construction and of such kind as will keep the 
general public off of the right of way. The fencing in of the right of 
way does not, of course, include that part of it occupied by stations. 
Wooden trestles, etc. — As the object of these specifications is to pro- 
vide a roadbed and structure of the most substantial construction, and 
whereon the cost of maintenance of way and structures shall be a 
minimum, no wooden trestles, bridges, or spans will be allowed. The 
tracks and structures shall be located and constructed upon the most 
substantial earth, rock, steel, and masonry beds, structures, and 
foundations. Where absolutely necessary, steel viaducts of the most 
approved design and construction may be used. The permission, in 
writing, of the railroad company shall be obtained in each case where 
steel viaducts are proposed before the commencement of the construc- 
tion thereof. This clause is not intended to prevent the use of any 
temporary wooden structures erected for the purpose of facilitating 
the work, but such temporary structures shall be removed when the 
road is tendered for acceptance to the railroad company. 

5. Bridges and Crossings. 

As already indicated in the general description above, the crossings, 
either over or beneath the grade thereof, of all public streets, avenues, 



APPENDIX. 223 

and highways, shall be made with concrete-steel bridges. All bridging of 
streams shall also be made with the concrete-steel structure. 

It is, of course, possible that in some instances, where the crossing 
of a highway" will have to be made on a long skew and where, on 
account of such a condition, the angle of repose will be too closely 
approximated, it will be more desirable to insert a steel crossing. It 
is understood that this may be done in cases where it shall be abso- 
lutely necessary, but in no case shall a steel crossing be inserted 
without the express permission, in writing, of the railroad company. 

Concrete. — All concrete shall be made of the best quality of Port- 
land cement, sand, and broken stone. The proportions will generally 
be one part of cement, three of sand, and five of broken stone. The 
stone shall be of such size that the largest stone shall pass through a 
two-inch ring. Before any stone shall be used in this work, it shall be 
entirely freed from dust by being screened or washed out. All stone 
used for concrete shall be hard and durable and free from seams and 
shall be at all times subject to the approval and rejection of the rail- 
road company. All concrete shall be thoroughly mixed and well made, 
and \vell rammed before any initial set of cement takes place. 

All concrete shall be deposited in regular layers of not over six 
inches thick and rammed, and the surface of each layer shall be kept 
clean for the deposit of the next superior layer. 

In laying the concrete and in ramming the same, the ramming shall 
continue until the water flushes to the surface. In all cases, before 
laying any concrete on rock surfaces, the rock shall be swept clean of 
all debris and dirt, and wherever it shall become necessary to lay 
fresh concrete next to, or on top of, concrete in which the mortar has 
already set, the surface of the old concrete shall be well washed and a 
thin layer of clean cement shall then be spread over it immediately 
previous to the laying of the fresh concrete. 

All sand used in the preparation of concrete or elsewhere in this 
work shall be coarse, clean, sharp sand, free from loam or foreign 
matter, and shall, at all times, be subject to the approval of the rail- 
road company. 

In cases where the crossing of any street, avenue, or highway shall 
be beneath the surface of the street, that is, shall be an under-crossing, 
such crossings shall be made as shown on the general plan accompany- 
ing these specifications, entitled " General Plan for Crossings Beneath 
the Surface of any Public Highway." In general, this plan contem- 
plates the erection of concrete-steel columns between each pair of tracks, 
together with concrete-steel abutments at such a distance from the out- 
side rail of the two outside tracks, as is shown on the drawing above re- 



224 APPENDIX. 

ferred to. All these columns are to be proportioned to carry the live 
and dead loads which they will have to sustain. 

Under street crossings for four track construction shall be fifty-four 
(54) feet clear inside width, that is, the distance between the inner sur- 
faces of the outside walls shall be not less than fifty- four (54) feet, and 
eighteen (18) feet in height from the subgrade to the lowest part of the 
under side of the roof. 

Under street crossings for two track construction shall be not less 
than twenty-eight (28) feet in width, and eighteen (18) feet in height 
from the subgrade to the lowest part of the under side of the roof. 

All metal used for any of the steel structures of this work before 
leaving the shops, shall be thoroughly cleaned with wire brushes and 
have all loose rust or scale removed, and be given one coat of pure red 
lead, and pure boiled linseed oil, mixed in proportion with thirty pounds 
of red lead to a gallon of oil. After erection, the metal shall again be 
cleaned from dirt and objectionable matter that may be found thereon, 
and then thoroughly and evenly painted with two additional coats of 
paint. 

All metal used for concrete-steel structures must be free from paint 
and oil and all scale and rust must be removed before imbedding in 
the concrete. 

All overhead crossings of highways, streams, and in fact wherever 
such crossings shall be used, shall be approved concrete-steel structures, 
the general design and appearance of which is shown on drawing ac- 
companying these specifications, marked '" General Drawing for Over- 
head Crossings." All such structures shall be constructed in the most 
substantial and workmanlike manner and of the very best materials 
obtainable. All designs shall at all times be subject to the approval of 
the railroad company. 

After the forms shall have been removed, the structure shall be 
carefully gone over and all inequalities carefully filled out in such 
manner as to produce a final structure of the neatest possible appear- 
ance. In all cases where forms are used, every precaution shall be 
taken in setting the forms. Before any concrete is placed therein, they 
shall be carefully cleaned of all cement and dirt, so as to present to 
the concrete on the surface afterward exposed to sight, a perfectly 
smooth surface. The forms shall be made of wood, kept smooth and 
coated with soap or other suitable substances approved by the rail- 
road company. No sheet metal-covered forms are to be used on the 
work. All forms shall be set true to the line, and be so tight as not 
to allow mortar and the water to escape. Forms shall always remain 
in place until the concrete is thoroughly set; in the event of any 



APPENDIX. 225 

pressure coming at once on tlie concrete, such time as the railroad 
company may direct. In no case of an exposed surface of the concrete, 
shall the joints of any component bases of the form or joints of the 
wood be visible. Should any voids or irregularities appear after the 
removal of the form, such defective work shall be cut out and filled 
with a rich concrete or mortar of such proportion, and done in such 
manner as may be directed by the railroad company. 

Parapets, spandrels, arches, etc. — For all subways or over-grade 
structures, concrete parapets of the form and dimensions shown on 
plans shall be brought true to the line and be firmly fastened in the 
position shown. These parapets shall be erected on each side of 
structure along the property lines of the street, and extend from end 
to end of retaining walls. For all arches or under-grade structures, 
no parapets will be required. The spandrel walls shall be carried up 
to the elevation of base of rail, and shall be provided with expansion 
joints over the springing lines of the arches, at the points of contra- 
flexure, and at such other points, if any, as are shown on plans. The 
spandrel walls shall have a thickness of not less than eighteen inches 
at any point, and a thickness at bottom of not less than four-tenths of 
the height of the wall. Steel ribs or rods of proper and approved 
design, dimensions, construction, and spacing shall be imbedded in the 
concrete of all arches. 

Each spandrel in arch bridges shall be provided with one or more 
pieces of wrought-iron pipe for the conveyance of such electric light 
conductors as shall be required for such lights as the railroad com- 
pany shall order installed on the arches. 

In all cases where new concrete shall be joined to old concrete, the 
old concrete shall first be thoroughly washed and then covered with a 
layer of clean cement upon which the new concrete shall be placed. All 
concrete shall be kept moist by sprinkling and every precaution taken 
to prevent it from cracking. 

Cement. — No cement will be allowed to be used except established 
brands of high-grade Portland cement which has been in successful 
use under similar conditions to the work proposed for at least three 
years, and has been seasoned or subjected to aeration for at least thirty 
days before leaving the factory. All cement shall be dry and free from 
lumps, and immediately upon receipt shall be stored in a dry, well- 
covered, and ventilated place, thoroughly protected from the weather. 
If required, the contractor shall furnish a certified statement of the 
chemical composition of the cement, and of the raw material from 
which it is manufactured. 

The fineness of the cement shall be such that at least 90 per cent. 

15 



22G APPENDIX. 

shall pass through a sieve of No. 40 wire, Stubbs gauge, having 10,000 
openings per square inch, and at least 75 per cent, will pass through a 
sieve of No. 45 wire, Stubbs gauge, having 40,000 openings per square 
inch. 

Samples for testing may be taken from every bag or barrel, but 
usually for tests of 100 barrels a sample will be taken from every tenth 
barrel. The samples will be mixed thoroughly together while dry and 
the mixture be taken as the sample for test. 

Tensile tests will be made on specimens prepared and maintained 
until tested at a temperature not less than sixty degrees Fahrenheit. 
Each specimen will have an area of one square inch at the breaking 
section, and after being allowed to harden in moist air for twentj^-four 
hours will be immersed and maintained under water until tested. 

The sand used in preparing test specimens shall be clean, sharp- 
crushed quartz retained on sieve of thirty meshes per lineal inch, and 
passing through a sieve of twenty me-shes per lineal inch. In test 
specimens of one cement and three sand, no more than 12 per cent, of 
water by weight shall be used. Specimens prepared from a mixture of 
one part cement and three parts sand, parts by weight, shall, after 
seven days, develop a tensile strength of not less than 170 pounds per 
square inch, and not less than 240 pounds per square inch after twenty- 
eight days. Cement mixed neat with from 20 to 25 per cent, of water 
to form a stiff paste shall, after thirty minutes, be appreciably in- 
dented by the end of a wire one-twelfth inch in diameter loaded to 
weigh one-quarter pound. Cement made into thin pats on glass plates 
shall not crack, scale, or warp under the following treatment : Three 
pats will be made and allowed to harden in moist air at from sixty to 
seventy degrees Fahrenheit; one of these will be placed in fresh water 
for twenty-eight days, another wiW be placed in water which will be 
raised to the boiling point for six hours and then allowed to cool, and 
the third is to be kept in air of the prevailing outdoor temperature. 

G. Equipment. 

The equipment shall be of the very best design and workmanship, and 
subject throughout to the approval of the railroad company. 

The equipment shall include all rolling stock, motors, boilers, en- 
gines, wires, conduits, mechanisms, tools and implements, and devices 
of every nature whatsoever which may be necessary for use in the 
transmission of the motive power, and operation and most economical 
maintenance and conduct of the railroad as proposed, and including all 
power-houses, car shops, repair shops, terminals, and real estate neces- 



APPENDIX, 227 

sary therefor, and all apparatus for signaling, and any and all appa- 
ratus whatsoever, of whatsoever kind and nature which may be re- 
quired for the best operation of the railroad as designed and as 
provided or implied in these specifications. 

The passenger car rolling stock provided shall consist of seventy-five 
passenger cars, fifty-five of which shall be motor ears, and each motor car 
shall be equipped with four motors, that is, one on each axle, and of such 
capacity as will enable it to make, when drawing one of the trail cars, 
and both cars together carrying 200 passengers, a schedule speed of 
not less than thirty miles per hour, for the express service, when 
such express service shall be operated as now designed, making ten 
stops between the termini, and allowing fifteen seconds for each stop. 
In addition to the above seventy-five passenger cars, the contractor 
shall provide ten additional freight and express cars as herein pro- 
vided, making eighty-five cars in all. 

The passenger-car equipment provided by the contractor shall be of 
ample capacity to enable it to make, with units consisting of one motor 
and one express car, for the local service, a schedule speed of not less 
than twenty-five miles an hour, making twenty-one stops between 
termini, and allowing fifteen seconds for each stop. 

Each of the motors provided by the contractor for this equipment, 
as herein provided, shall be of such a capacity that each or any of 
them will carry a current of 350 amperes at 600 volts continually for 
two hours, with a rise of temperature by thermometer not exceeding 
seventy-five degrees Cent. The weight of each of the motors provided 
by the contractor for this equipment shall not exceed 6,000 pounds per 
motor, including the weight of gear pinion and gear case. 

Brakes, etc. — All the cars provided by the contractor for this rail- 
road shall be provided with the latest and most approved automatic 
power braking apparatus. All braking apparatus used on any part of 
this equipment shall be equal to that of the best manufacture in the 
United States, and shall be submitted to and approved by the railroad 
company before its adoption or use by the contractor. 

The braking apparatus shall be such that all of the brake shoes of a 
train of any length will be instantly applied by the application of the 
brakes from any platform of any car. 

Unity of equipment. — In the selection of the motor and car control 
equipments for the performances of the express and local train services, 
as herein provided, the equipments adopted shall be such that all 
motors and motor-car units shall be the same as regards capacity, 
weight, size, and dimensions, that is, there shall be no mixing of motor 
or control equipments or braking equipments. 



22S APPENDIX. 

The motive power shall be electricity, of either the direct or the 
alternating current system, — ■ whichever system shall be determined 
upon by the contractor and approved by the railroad company. The 
details of the motors, controlling devices, and primary and sub- 
stations shall be subniitted to the railroad company, and shall receive 
the approval of the said company before their adoption by the con- 
tractor. The railroad company shall have the right to adopt such 
improved designs, devices, paraphernalia, in connection with this 
equipment, as it shall desire, and all such devices and designs so 
ordered by the railroad company shall be adopted and used by the con- 
tractor if ordered to do so prior to the acceptance of such apparatus 
as the contractor may submit. 

The cars used shall be neat and attractive in appearance, both within 
and without. All material and workmanship shall be of the very best 
and latest design, and special care shall be taken to avoid any device 
wbich might work loose or produce noises. The cars shall be provided 
with approved spring buffers of such design that there shall be abso- 
lutely no jerking between the separate units upon the starting of the 
train. All designs for cars, trucks, and devices shall be submitted to 
and approved by the railroad company. 

The essential characteristic of this railroad will be its speed, where- 
fore the rolling stock shall be so designed and constructed that high 
speeds shall be attained and maintained with the utmost comfort and 
safety to the traveling public, and with a minimum possible cost of 
maintenance for wear and tear upon the equipment. The electrical 
equipment provided shall be such that the train units can be operated 
from any platform of any motor car in any train unit. 

All intermediate or trail cars (cars not supplied w^ith motors, as 
herein provided), shall be wired and supplied with connection plugs 
and devices to enable all motor cars to be connected, and the train 
operated from any platform of any motor car regardless of its position 
in any train unit. 

The length of each of the cars shall be such that the clear inside length 
shall not be less than forty-five feet. The seats shall be arranged in such 
manner as to provide a maximum carrying capacity per car and pro- 
duce the utmost comfort to the traveling public, and the cars shall be 
of a width, not less than eight feet six inches, inside dimensions, as 
will most facilitate the passage up and down the aisles. The design, 
material, and general arrangement of the inside of the car, including 
the distribution of lights therein, as well as the design and arrange- 
ment of the outside of the car shall be subject to the approval of the 
railroad company. 



APPENDIX. 229 

As the element of wind resistance at the speeds which will be at- 
tained in the operation of this railroad upon the schedules as pro- 
vided, will be an important consideration in the power required to 
operate the trains, the contractor shall adopt such a design and con- 
struction as will, without rendering the cars impracticable or 
objectionable to be used in connection with standard cars of possible 
connecting railroads, or of operating upon the tracks of other railroads, 
or without causing any discomfort or risk to the traveling public, pro- 
duce the lowest amount of resistance. Such designs shall be subject 
to the approval of the railroad company. 

Generating plant. — The sizes and designs of the steam generators, 
prime movers and electric generators used in any of the stations of 
this company shall be subject to the approval of the railroad company. 

The main generating station shall be of such design and construc- 
tion, and shall be supplied with such apparatus as will produce results 
equal to the best results now obtained in the costs of energy per 
kilowatt hour. 

The railroad company reserves the right herein to especially order 
the contractor to install steam turbines as the prime movers, should it 
finally conclude to do so upon the more mature investigation of the 
details of such machines, and, in the event of the railroad company so 
ordering, the contractor shall install such turbines as may be directed. 
The main station shall have a capacity of not less than 12,000 kilowatts, 
with an additional overload capacity, for a period of time not exceed- 
ing two hours, of 25 per cent. 

All of the steam generators shall be the latest and most approved 
water-tube boilers. The plant shall be divided into such a number of 
units as will produce a minimum cost of production when the items 
of interest, maintenance, or depreciation and operation are all con- 
sidered together. 

The condensers shall be of the surface condenser types. 

The generating stations throughout shall be equipped with such 
devices as superheaters, fuel economizers, fe^ed-water heaters, etc., as 
will produce the largest quantity of energy at the switchboard per 
pound of coal consumed. 

All bends or curves in the steam or water-piping systems shall be 
long radii curves and all such bends shall be of copper piping. 

All steam and hot-water pipes shall be covered with the most ap- 
proved and substantial heat insulation. 

The main steam and main water lines of piping shall be in duplicate 
with connections from each line to the boilers, pumps, prime movers, 
etc. 

All steam and hot-water pipe lines shall be provided with the latest 



230 APPENDIX. 

expansion devices for taking up the variations in length due to changes 
of temperature. 

Each of the substations, which shall be located and so interconnected 
as to best subserve the condition of reliability of operation, and reduce 
to a minimum liability of shut-down, shall be supplied with accumu- 
lators of the best make, and of capacity sufficient to take the peak of 
the load curves. 

Water, water-icays, docks, etc. — The main power station, as herein 
provided for, shall be installed at such a point where there will be 
ample water for use in the boilers, as well as for the purpose of con- 
densing the steam, after it shall have been used in steam prime movers. 
The stations shall be so located that the coal and other fuel required 
for the generation of the steam can be brought up to the company's 
property and wharves or docks, to be erected by the contractor, on 
Ijarges or vessels without the necessity of trans-shipping or lightering 
or reloading such barges or vessels in any harbor or water-way in or 
about New York City or Westchester County. 

If necessary, the contractor will dredge a channel sufficiently deep to 
enable any and all barges or vessels to be brought up to and anchored 
alongside the company's property where the main power-house or 
generating station will be located. 

All necessary dredging, construction of docks, etc., required for the 
provision of the water-ways and unloading facilities, as herein indi- 
cated, shall be done by the contractor at his expense and without any 
extra cost to the railroad company. 

Transmitting circuits. — The design of the transmitting circuits shall 
be such that the maximum loss, under maximum average conditions, 
between the main generating station and any substation shall not be 
more than 5 per cent. The loss between any of the substations and any 
point along the line of the road where current may be required, shall 
be such that the loss, under maximum average conditions, shall not be 
more than 10 per cent. 

The installation shall provide for not less than 575, nor more than 
'630 volts, at the car-collecting device at any point along the line under 
maximum average conditions. The third-rail installation shall be of 
the latest design and construction and of such kind as will, as far as 
possible, eliminate the element of liability of accident to persons on 
the roadway. The design and construction of the third rail shall be 
such as will, within reasonable limits, avoid all possibility of shut 
down due to sleet, frost or snow storms. The design and construction of 
the third rail shall be subject to the approval of the railroad company. 
The contractor shall erect along the line of the roadway at such points as 



APPENDIX. 231 

shall be designated by the railroad company electric lights of such 
kind and power as shall be designated by the railroad company. The 
total number of such lights shall not be more than 500 lights. 

The design and construction of the third rail or circuits conveying 
energy to the car contacts or car current collectors, shall be such that 
the collectors or contacts of each motor car of each train unit will be 
in contact with the third rail or energy-conveying circuit no matter 
where the car may be on any part of the main or branch lines in or 
about the termini or stations, or in or about the car yards or storage 
yards, etc., or in crossing over or passing across any switch, cross- 
over or other special work. There shall be no " dead " places or places 
where a car or each motor car of a train unit cannot be moved with its 
own motors taking current from the line. 

Buildings for power-houses, carhouses, and stations, etc. — The 
buildings for all power-houses, carhouses, substations, car-barns, machine 
shops, paint and repair shops, and express stations (wherever build- 
ings shall be required for express stations ) , shall be the most substan- 
tial brick or stone masonry structures. The brick or stone in all 
cases shall be laid with a mortar composed of Portland cement in the 
proportion of one part of cement to three parts of sand. The brick 
or stone used shall be in all cases of the best quality brick or stone. 
As already provided, the buildings for the power-houses, carhouses, and 
machine shops shall be constructed to provide for the installation of 
traveling cranes of ample capacity to handle the heaviest piece of 
machinery or equipment which might ever be required in said buildings, 
as herein specified. 

All power-houses, power-stations, carhouses, substations, car-barns, 
machine, paint and repair shops, and express stations, shall be abso- 
lutely fire-proof. 

Express and freight cars. — The contractor shall provide, in addition 
to the seventy-five passenger cars, herein provided, ten closed boxcars, 
to be used for the transportation of freight, express, etc. Five of these 
ten cars shall be equipped with four motors each, which motors shall 
be identical with those used for the passenger equipment. 

The painting and outside finish of these cars shall be like that of the 
passenger cars. The interior of these cars shall be neatly finished and 
such partitions and lights provided as shall be directed by the railroad 
company. The contractor shall submit the design of these cars to the 
railroad company and receive the approval of such design before he 
shall adopt any ear. 

The inside dimensions of the express and freight cars shall be not 
less than forty-five (45) feet in length by eight (8) feet six (6) inches in 
width by nine (9) feet high at the lowest point. 



232 APPENDIX. 

All cars provided by the contractor for this equipment shall be so 
designed as to permit of their running safely over any and all parts of 
the tracks of the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company now 
being erected in the city of New York. 

Car signals and lights. — Each of the cars of this company shall be 
provided with proper receptacles for the reception of marker or indi- 
cator lamps at each end of the car. Each of the cars shall be provided 
with an electric headlight of the latest and most apporved design and 
manufacture; each car shall also be provided with complete equip- 
ments of indicator lamps and day signals or markers of the latest, most 
approved design and manufacture. 



7. Stations. 

The contractor shall provide in all, including the terminals, twenty- 
four stations. Twenty-two of the twenty-four stations shall be located 
on the main line, at the points shown on Exhibit No, 1, The remain- 
ing two stations shall be located on the branch line at points shown on 
Exhibit No, 1. The station at the end of the branch line shall be a 
brick structure located and designed to directly connect with a ferry 
landing at Clason's Point, that is, the ferry landing and station plat- 
forms shall join. The terminal stations shall be adequate, and shall 
be so designed and equipped as to comfortably provide, not only for 
the passenger traffic, estimated to be about 50,000 passengers per day, 
with a maximum of 10,000 per hour, but also an express and parcel 
business. There shall be provided at some place, subject to the ap- 
proval of the railroad company, in and about the terminal stations, 
properly designed rooms for the receipt and disposal of light freight, 
parcel, and express shipments. As the plans of the company contem- 
plate the receipt of express parcels from other connecting lines, the 
contractor shall locate ' the receiving rooms in such manner that this 
express and parcel business may be handled in the most expeditious 
manner. The terminal and express stations shall be substantial ma- 
sonry, brick, or stone structures, finished in a neat and workmanlike 
manner, and all the forms of design, construction, and finish shall be 
subject to the approval of the railroad company. 

The station located at or near the southeast corner of Bronx Park, at 
the junction of the tracks connecting the express tracks of the New 
York and Port Chester Railroad Company with the tracks of the Rapid 
Transit Subway Company, shall be a spacious brick or stone structure, 
of ample capacity to handle the immense traffic and business which will 
maintain at this station. This station shall be designed and constructed 



APPENDIX. 233 

to provide for a quick, safe, and easy interchange between the express, 
local, and branch line services. 

The intermediate stations along the line of the road shall be so de- 
signed as to provide for a minimum number of men in the conduct and 
operation thereof. The preference of the company is that where the 
tracks of its road are on an embankment, the stations shall be con- 
structed by building an underground passage at right angles to the line 
of the road and extending completely across the road. This passage 
shall be of such width, not less than fifty feet, as will permit the 
erection of the necessary ticket booths and waiting-rooms therein. The 
plan of operation contemplates trains running in the same direction on 
the tracks adjacent to the outside tracks, while trains on the outside 
tracks shall run in opposite directions, wherefore the designs of the 
company contemplate two sets of stairways for each station other than 
the terminal station, and where four tracks are used, each set terminat- 
ing between those tracks upon which trains are running in the same 
direction, and coming up on to the platforms between the two tracks on 
which trains will run in the same direction. The terminal and express 
stations shall be fire-proof stations throughout. For two-track con- 
struction the station or platform shall be between the tracks. 

Between each set of tracks upon which trains are running in the 
same direction as above indicated, there shall be erected platforms of 
substantial design and construction and of such length as will enable 
trains of not less than six cars to load and unload from any platform 
in the train. 

The stations and platforms between tracks shall be covered with a 
roof of such design and construction as will protect the passengers 
from the elements. The ends of the stations shall be protected by 
suitable guards. The skeleton of the roofs of the intermediate stations 
shall be of steel. 

Wherever the tracks of the company are beneath the existing street 
grades, etc., the preference of the company will be for the stat'on 
design as immediately heretofore provided, with the exception that in 
the latter case the entire station will be above the roadway and ex- 
tend across the roadway, and shall be completely enclosed and roofed 
in to provide proper shelter for the ticket booths, waiting-rooms, etc. 

The company will provide for the contractor general designs of the 
stations as above indicated, which shall be adopted by the contractor. 

All stations shall be thoroughly ventilated, lighted, and provided 
with running water, and such retiring and other apartments as the 
company may direct, and shall be connected to the nearest sewers in such 
a manner as to produce the best sanitary results, and in all cases in con- 
formity with any existing local ordinances or regulations. 



234 APPENDIX. 

The local stations, as well as the station along the two-track portion 
of the road at Clason's Point, need not be masonry structures. If con- 
structed of wood, the construction shall be of the steel-frame type, with 
an appropriate and substantial wood construction and finish. For two- 
track construction, the stations shall be erected upon the island plat- 
forms between the tracks, and provided with the ticket booths and 
passage-ways so located as to best provide for the collection of the fares 
and the safe and rapid handling of the traffic. A general drawing for 
the two-track stations will be furnished. 

All the stations on both the main and the branch line running to 
Clason's Point shall be located as shown on the plans forming part of 
this specification, furnished by the railroad company. 

Station grounds, approaches, etc. — The contractor shall acquire and 
deliver to the railroad company sufficient real estate at each station on 
both sides of the tracks of the railroad company, to provide ample 
grounds for approaches. Such grounds shall be of ample area, and so 
divided as to provide for the driving in and out of teams carrying 
persons and goods. 

The vehicular roads for approaches in and about the stations shall 
all be of the loop form in order to permit the continuous passage of the 
vehicular traffic. Provision shall be made to enable vehicles carrying 
express and light freight parcels to drive up to the stations and re- 
ceive or discharge any goods in a manner which will not, in any manner, 
interfere with the passenger traffic. 

8. General Clauses. 

The intention of these specifications is to provide, and the intention 
of the railroad company is to install and the contractor shall, at his 
own expense, construct, equip, provide and deliver to the railroad com- 
pany a railroad of the latest and best type. The essential idea of the 
construction is to provide: 

First. Safety to the public. 

Second. Reliability of operation. 

Third. High schedule and running speeds. 

Fourth. Minimum cost of operation and maintenance. 

The essential characteristic of this railroad will be its speed, where- 
fore all material and workmanship must be of the best class in every 
respect. Nothing of an untried nature shall be used on this installation 
without the express permission of the railroad company, which per- 
mission shall, in all cases, be given in writing. 

The contractor shall at all times conduct the work so that there shall 
be a minimum of inconvenience to the public, and all the streets and 



APPENDIX. 235 

public places occupied by the contractor shall be cleared of all refuse 
and rubbish at its own expense as rapidly as possible. 

The right is reserved to the railroad company to order the contractor 
to, at any time, clear away all refuse and rubbish whenever, in the 
opinion of the railroad company, the public convenience may demand it, 
or whenever the contractor may not show, in the estimation of the 
railroad company, due diligence in doing so. 

The principal lines and grades will be as shown on the profile which 
will be part of these specifications. 

The railroad company, however, reserves the right to change any 
line or grade, when, in its opinion, it may be deemed expedient to do 
so, and the contractor shall adopt any such change. In all cases of a 
change of line or grade, the contractor shall be reimbursed for any 
additional expense which he may be put to on account of such change. 
In case, however, of the change of such lines and grades in such man- 
ner as to reduce the amount of work, an amount shall be deducted from 
the contractor's total consideration. The manner and method of arriv- 
ing at any determination of any additional consideration or any de- 
duction to be made from the contractor, shall be provided in the contract 
between the contractor and the railroad company. 

The railroad company reserves the right, and the contractor shall 
agree to the right of the railroad company at all times, to inspect any 
and all material entering into the construction of this work. Agents 
of the railroad company shall, at all times, have access to any part of 
the work or any material used thereon, or in connection therewith, and 
any imperfect work or material which may be discovered before the 
final acceptance of the work shall be corrected by the contractor, not- 
withstanding that it may have been overlooked previously by an 
inspector. 

The contractor shall erect, satisfactory to the railroad company, all 
necessary conveniences, in conformity with local ordinances and sanitary 
regulations, properly secluded from public observation, for the use of 
all laborers and others employed on the work. 

In all operations connected with this work, all local and other ordi- 
nances of the cities, to\vns, villages, counties, etc., which shall be 
operative and valid with respect to this work, must be respected and 
strictly complied with by the contractor. 

If, in the prosecution of this work, any material has been brought 
on the ground for use in the work or selected for use in the work, which 
shall have been condemned by the railroad company as unsatisfactory 
or not in conformity with the specifications, the contractor shall im- 
mediately remove such materials from the work, and remedy any such 
work in such manner as may be directed by the railroad company. 



236 APPENDIX. 

The contractor shall employ none but the most competent, skillful, 
and faithful men to do the work. Whenever, in the opinion of the 
railroad company, any man or men employed by the contractor shall be 
incompetent, or, for any reason, the railroad company shall deem him 
or them not the proper person or persons to be connected with the work, 
such man or men shall be discharged from the work, and shall not 
again be employed on it. 

Drawings forming part of these specifications. — The railroad com- 
pany will furnish to the contractor, as part of these specifications, 
blueprints marked as Exhibits, as follows: 

Exhibit No. 1. General map showing generally the line of the route 
between the southern terminus and the State line at Port Chester. 
Also showing the general course of the branch line to the East River. 

Exhibit ISTo. 2. Being a set of drawings comprising fourteen sheets 
in all, showing accurately the proposed route and the right of way 
real estate, being a strip 100 feet wide, as herein provided, to be ac- 
quired by the contractor and delivered to the railroad company, ex- 
tending from the southern terminus, to the State line at Port Chester; 
also showing the right of way real estate, the same being also a strip 
100 feet wide, to be acquired by the contractor for the railroad com- 
pany, on the branch line. These maps also show the grade lines and 
the existing contour or elevation of the ground which will be traversed 
by the center line of the road. The transit lines and grades shown on 
these maps must be strictly adhered to by the contractor. Provision 
for any unforeseen or imperative changes will be made in the contract 
of which this specification will be a part. 

Exhibit No. 3. Continuous plan and profile showing transit lines and 
gradients, also showing approximate cuts and fills. The railroad com- 
pany assumes no responsibility for the accuracy of the quantity or 
quality of the excavations or embankments as shown on Exhibits 
No. 2 and No. 3. 

Exhibit No. 4. General drawings showing concrete spans and con- 
crete subways for crossing public highways as herein provided. 

Exhibit No. 5. General drawings showing plan of stations and track 
platforms for four-track roadway as herein provided. 

Exhibit No. 6. General drawings showing plan of station for two- 
track roadway, as herein provided. 

Exhibit No. 7. Drawing showing distance of center of third rail 
from center between track rails of the Kapid Transit Subway Com- 
pany system, to guide the contractor in so designing the equipment of 
the New York and Port Chester Railroad Company, so that its cars can 
be run from its tracks on to the tracks of the Rapid Transit Subway 



APPENDIX. 237 

system and operated on the Rapid Transit Subway system with- 
out altering or changing the car-current collecting devices after 
leaving the New York and Port Chester tracks. This drawing is only 
intended as a guide and the contractor must assure himself about the 
final design adopted by the Rapid Transit Subway Construction 
Company and the Manhattan Elevated Railroad Company. 

Right of tcaij, real estate, etc. — The plans of the ra.lroad company 
are intended to provide for a right of way one hundred (100) feet wide 
throughout, and the contractor shall acquire and deliver to the railroad 
company a right of way 100 feet wide throughout, except in such abso- 
lutely necessary instances where a strip 100 feet wide cannot be ob- 
tained without ruining valuable residence or other property, in Avhich 
case a lesser width may be authorized by the railroad company in 
writing, but in no case shall such width be less than sixty-five feet. 
In any case where a width less than one hundred (100) feet may be 
imperative, the contractor shall first obtain the consent in writing of 
the railroad company for such lesser or decreased width. The con- 
tractor shall provide and deliver to the railroad company a right of 
way extending from the southern terminus of the New York & Port- 
chcster Railroad in the Borough of Bronx, to the State line between 
the States of New York and Connecticut, together with the right of way 
extending from the East river at or near Clason's Point, for the branch 
line, to the intersection of said branch line with the main line or lines 
at or near Bronx Park, all of which is shown on the drawings forming 
Exhibit No. 2 of this specification. The line and grades shown on 
Exhibit No. 2 shall be strictly adhered to by the contractor. In all 
places where are to be located stations, storage yards, car-barns, ma- 
chine shops, power-houses, substations, and repair shops, the real estate 
shall be ample for the purposes for which it shall be required. Before 
commencing the Avork of construction, the contractor shall prepare a 
plan showing the width of the proposed right of way for the main and 
branch lines throughout, together with the dimensions of the real estate 
for all the additional purposes herein provided. This plan shall be 
approved by the railroad company in writing. 

The contractor shall build, in a most substantial and workmanlike 
manner, all tracks, pits, and transfer tables which shall be necessary 
for the purposes of storage yards, repair, and inspection purposes. He 
shall install in the power-house, substations, and car and repair shops, 
such traveling and other cranes or devices as may be most applicable 
for the expeditious and economical inspection, repair, and maintenance 
of the machinery, cars, motors, or other details of the equipment. All 
designs for the storage yards, power and carhouses, substations and the 



238 APPENDIX. 

equipment thereof, shall be submitted to and approved by the railroad 
company. 

The contractor shall also provide a place for the storage of coal, where 
or wherein shall be capacity sufficient for the storage of 10,000 tons of 
coal. 

The boiler-rooms shall be provided with the most modern methods for 
the measurement of all fuel and water used in the operation of the 
plant, and the handling of all fuel and ashes shall be done throughout 
by the use of the most approved machinery now employed for such 
purposes, the designs for all of which, together with the designs for the 
arrangement of which shall be submitted to and approved by the rail- 
road company. 

The express trains of this railroad will be run on a minimum head- 
way of ten minutes, with a minimum headway of five minutes for the 
local services, for about four hours of each day. The design of the 
block signal system must be such, that the express and local services 
upon the minimum headways, as above stated, can be readily and safely 
made, without eliminating the automatic features of the block signal 
system as heretofore stated. 

The contractor shall provide the most approved receptacles located 
over the tops of the boilers, which shall have a capacity for the storage 
of 4,000 tons of coal. The storage bin shall be provided and con- 
nected to proper conveying apparatus for the transportation of the coal 
from the place of unloading or receiving to the storage bin as provided 
herein. 

Progress, etc. — All materials, appliances, and apparatus required to 
be provided, and all labor requisite for the proper installation of the 
same, in accordance with the specifications and plans for the construc- 
tion and equipment, shall Be furnished in ample quantity and time to 
obviate any delay in any work to be done in the building. 

The contractor shall proceed with the different and various portions 
of the work in the order and at the times necessary and proper for 
insuring thorough workmanship, due co-operation, between the work- 
men of the various trades, for obviating delays, and for other legitimate 
reasons. 

All night work or overtime work requisite to meet properly the re- 
quirements herein stated as to " progress " and " completion " shall be 
done by the contractor without cost to the railroad company. 

Acceptance. — The railroad may be tendered for acceptance only after 
the trial tests have been made and completed and after all defects 
shall have been removed, so as to make the same complete and satis- 
factory in every respect to the railroad company. 



APPENDIX. 230 

The acceptance or rejection of any one of the separately-specified 
portions of the work, material, or equipment shall not imply or entail 
the acceptance or rejection of the remaining portions. 

Scope of specifications. — It is the intent and purpose of these specifi- 
cations to cover and include, under each section, all apparatus, appli- 
ances, materials, or labor, necessary to properly install, equip, adjust, 
and put into the best working condition the respective portions of the 
railroad and equipment specified. Any apparatus, appliances, material, 
or labor, not hereinabove specifically mentioned or included, that may 
be found necessary to complete or perfect any portion of the herein 
specified railroad or equipment in substantial manner and in com- 
pliance with the requirements implied in this specification, shall be 
furnished by the contractor just as if specifically mentioned in this 
specification, and without extra cost to the railroad company. 

Approval of details. — All details of the construction and installation 
of machinery and appliances required for the railroad and equipment, 
or portion thereof, specified or implied in these specifications, shall be 
subject to the approval of the railroad company in respect to design, 
proportion, materials, workmanship, finish, setting up, adjustments, etc. 

All details pertaining to the construction of machinery, apparatus, or 
appliances, specified or implied in these specifications, shall be sub- 
mitted to, and approved by, the railroad company, in writing, before the 
work of construction is begun. 

All details pertaining to the installation thereof shall likewise be 
submitted, and approved in writing, before the said machinery, appa- 
ratus, or appliances are delivered or installed. 

Materials, — In the case of all materials or appliances described in 
the specifications imder a specific name, the said name shall be under- 
stood as defining and fixing a standard whereby the character and the 
adequacy of the said material or appliance shall be judged and de- 
termined by the railroad company. 

All materials or appliances not specifically named in the specifica- 
tions shall be of the best of their respective kinds, and shall be subject 
to the approval of the railroad company. 

Samples of all materials or appliances, or of finish, requiring to be 
approved, shall be submitted whenever called for by the railroad com- 
pany; and no such material or appliance shall be installed until it 
shall have been duly approved by the railroad company. 

The materials and appliances installed shall be in every respect the 
full equivalent of the samples selected and approved. 

Safety appliances and devices. — The contractor shall throughout in 
the building and equipment of the railroad, install the latest and most 



240 APPENDIX. 

improved devices which will conduce to the safety of the employees of 
the company who may be required to be on and about the roadway, as 
well as conduce to the safety of the public. The third rail, the high 
tension and other transmitting circuits, and all devices connected 
therewith, shall be covered or protected in a manner so as to best 
accomplish this object. The contractor shall employ the latest and 
most improved devices for rendering the cars fire-proof. All fire- 
proofing designs and devices shall be subject to the approval of the 
railroad company. 

Completion. — The word "completion" shall mean full and exact 
compliance and conformity with the provisions and requirements, ex- 
pressed or implied, in these specifications and the plans accompanying 
and forming part of the same, including all amendments, revisions, 
corrections, or additions, duly authorized, as provided. 

Deputies, etc. — The contractor shall be responsible for any and all 
parties deputized or employed for furnishing or doing any portion of 
the equipment or work contracted for. 

All concerns, firms, individuals, employed by the contractor must be 
of good standing and reputation in their respective lines, and must be 
acceptable to the railroad company. 

The said concerns, firms, or individuals, shall be required to comply 
with all the requirements of the specifications and all general or 
specific conditions and stipulations of the contract in precisely the 
same manner and to the same degree that would be required of the 
contractor himself. 

Time of completion. — The contractor is to prosecute the herein- 
specified work and equipment to completion within the term stated in 
the contract. 

Tests. — When the contractor shall have finished all and singular all 
of the work and supplied and erected all and singular all material 
required for the construction and commencement of operation of the 
railroad, as herein provided, he shall, at his own expense, make a series 
of trial runs and tests extending over a period of not less than two 
weeks, which tests shall determine the performance of the individual 
parts of the installation, such as the boilers, prime movers, electric 
generators, transmission circuits, track and third rail, car motors, and 
car equipments, and shall report in detail the results of such tests to 
the railroad company. The railroad company shall have the right to 
verify such results, at its own proper cost and expense should it desire 
to do so, and in such case shall notify the contractor, in writing, 
within ten days after the receipt of the results, as above provided, of 



APPENDIX. 241 

its intention to so verify, and shall complete its investigations and 
report its results to the contractor within thirty days after the re- 
ceipt of the result of the tests from the contractor. Should no notifica- 
tion or protest be given or made to the contractor within ten days 
after the receipt of the contractor's tests, it shall be construed as an 
acceptance of the results as satisfactory to the railroad company. 

The railroad company reserves the right, and the contractor agrees 
,it shall have the right to have its authorized representatives present 
at all tests made by the contractor, made either during the con- 
struction or upon completion thereof, as provided. 

The railroad company shall have the right to test at its own ex- 
pense, any material entering into the construction, or equipment of 
this railroad, at any time during the construction or after the com- 
pletion thereof, and every facility to make any and all tests shall be 
supplied to the railroad company by the contractor when and as 
demanded of the contractor by the railroad company. 

Drawings and designs to J)e furnished hy the contractor. — The con- 
tractor shall prepare at his own cost and expense all detail and other 
drawings required in connection with the construction and equipment 
of this railroad, or in connection with any and all detail specifications 
issued or used in connection with the construction and equipment, and 
shall also at his own cost and expense, prepare all detail specifications, 
and the contractor shall, at his own cost and expense, prepare and de- 
liver to the railroad company, at the same time that the results of 
the tests are delivered to it, one complete original set of tracing draw- 
ings, and two sets of blueprints on cloth, showing the final construc- 
tion as installed of every detail of the railroad, together with all 
general or assembly drawings thereof as installed. This set of draw- 
ings shall include the detail and assembly of each and every highway 
crossing (including the strain sheets thereof), as well as the detail 
and assembly of all of the equipment, stations, and other buildings, 
etc., and the cross sections of the roadway, together with a final set 
of property maps, equal to or superior to Exhibit No. 2, of this 
specifications, showing accurately the width of the right of way 
throughout, and the station grounds, etc., together with all other real 
estate, water fronts, etc. The object of this clause is to enable the 
railroad company to possess absolutely accurate records of its property 
at the time of its acceptance. 

Condition of streets and highways. — When the contractor shall 
have finished his work, all streets, avenues, and public highways crossed 
by the line of the road shall be left by the contractor in as good con- 
dition as he found them. The conditions of the streets, avenues, and 

16 



242 APPENDIX. 

highways at the conclusion of the work by the contractor shall be 
satisfactory to the local or other authorities having jurisdiction there- 
over, and all work in connection with the railroad involving the dis- 
turbance of any street, avenue, or highway along the line of the road, 
shall be conducted in accordance with all local ordinances and regula- 
tions, and to the satisfaction of the local or other authorities having 
jurisdiction over such crossings and as herein provided. 

Other railroad crossings. — Attention is called to the fact that under 
the general plans furnished herewith and forming part of this specifica- 
tion, the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Company's 
tracks will be crossed four times by the line of the New York and Port 
Chester Railroad. Such crossings must be made by the contractor in 
such manner as not to disturb the New York, New Haven and Hart- 
ford Railroad Company, and in a manner satisfactory to the said 
New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Company. 

Attention is also called to the crossing of the Port Morris branch of 
the New York Central Railroad near One Hundred and Forty-third 
street, and the Southern boulevard. This crossing must also be made 
so as not to disturb the operations of the railroad crossed, and in a 
manner satisfactory to the owners thereof. 

Wherever other railroads whose tracks are upon or along public 
streets or highways are crossed, such crossings are considered simply 
as highway crossings, and no further notice is taken thereof. 

Xew or additional devices. — When and wherever the railroad com- 
pany shall order the contractor to install any device not now in use 
as a recognized standard device, and when and wherever the cost of 
such device shall be in excess of the cost of the best standard devices 
now in existence, the contractor shall be reimbursed for such excess 
cost in a manner to be provided in the contract between the railroad 
company and the contractor. 

Contractor must provide all tools, construction plant, etc. — The con- 
tractor shall provide, at his own expense, all tools, implements, and all 
construction material of whatsoever kind and nature, such as material 
for temporary or false work, cribbing, staging, centering, casing, and 
all conveyors, dredges, mixing machines, engines, pumps, derricks, pile- 
drivers, or other appliances requisite for the expeditious construction 
of the railroad as provided. The contractor shall take all necessary 
precautions to maintain and protect all property, sewers, trees, and 
other structures, and shall repair any damage occasioned by his work, 
and shall provide the necessary watchmen, signal lights at night, an(J 
fences, and provide and take such measures as shall be necessary for: 
the protection of persons and property, and shall provide such. 



APPENDIX. 243 

temporary street crossings as local and special requirements and con- 
ditions may require. The contractor shall assume and be responsible 
for all losses by fire, water, or other causes, during the construction 
of the work and until its acceptance by the railroad company. 

Cleaning up. — The contractor shall remove all temporary structures, 
rubbish, and unused material after he shall have completed the work, 
as herein provided, and place the roadway, stations, and the environs 
thereof in a neat, clean condition. This cleaning up shall be completed 
before the commencement of the trial tests, as herein provided. 



APPENDIX II. 



The following is a list of some articles bearing on the subject of 
interurban railway work: 

Earnings and expenses of electric railivays: 

Population Carried on Massachusetts St. Ry. Journal, May, 1897, 

Roads, page 283. 

Financial Results of Interurban Railways St. Ry. Journal, Sept., 1898, 



near Boston [Higgins], 
Receipts per Mile of Track. 

Surface Railway Operation in Man- 
hattan. 



page 471. 
St. Ry. Journal, April, 1899, 

page 227. 
St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 21, 

1903, page 293. 
Freight Business on Electric Railways St. Ry. Journal, May 23, 



[Hawks]. 



1903, page 771. 



Interurban Railway Company, Des St. Ry. Journal, June 20, 



Moines, Iowa. 



1903, page 896. 



Concrete hridge construction: 

Concrete Arch Bridge Construction Engineering News, Aug. 1, 

[Douglas]. 1901. 

Concrete Steel Bridges in Porto Rico Engineering News, Aug. 1, 

[Thacher]. 1901. 



Third-rail construction : 

Collectors for Heavy Traction [Han- 

chett] . 
The Electric Third Rail [Potter]. 

Third-Rail Electric Traction in Italy. 

Third-Rail Operation on Aurora, Elgin 

& Chicago Railway. 
Protected Third Rail on Wilkesbarre & 

Hazleton Railway. 

Wooden Blocks as Insulators for Third 
Rail on Albany & Hudson Railway 
[Leavitt]. 

Wooden Blocks as Insulators for Third 
Rail [Gonzenbach]. 

[244] 



St. Ry. Journal, July 5, 1902, 

page 13. 
St. Ry. Journal, Aug. 2, 1902, 

page 150. 
St. Ry Journal, Dec. 6, 1902, 

page 890. 
St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 14, 

1903, page 268. 
St. Ry. Journal, March 7, 

1903, page 344; May 16, 

1903, page 743. 
St. Ry. Journal, April 18, 

1903', page 599. 

St. Ry. Journal, April 25, 
1903, page 635. 



APPENDIX. 



245 



Train acceleration and braking: 

Train Acceleration and Braking [Pot- 
ter]. 

Rapid Transit Service, Power Consump- 
tion [Armstrong] . 



xidvantages of Rapid Acceleration 

[Lundie]. 
Acceleration of Electric Cars [Morse]. 

Automatic Braking. 

Tripper System of Automatic Braking 
[Neff], 

Relation of Energy and Motor Capacity 
to Schedule Speed in the Moving of 
Trains by Electricity [Hutchinson], 

Acceleration and Movement of Heavy 
and High-Speed Electric Trains [Got- 
shall]. 

Method of Ascertaining by Means of a 
Dynamometer Car the Power Required 
to Operate the Trains of the N. Y. C. 
& H. R. R. R. between Mott Haven 
Junction and Grand Central Station 
and the Relative Cost of Operation by 
Steam and Electricity [Arnold]. 

Tests on Energy Consumption of Electric 
Cars in Interurban Service around 
Detroit. 

Train Unit Control System of the Berlin 
Elevated Railway. 



St. Ry. Journal, Oct., 1897, 

page 670. 
Trans. A. I. E. E., 1898, page 

363; St. Ry. Journal, June, 

July, Aug., and Sept., 1898, 

pages 312, 376, 432, 539. 
St. Ry. Journal, April, 1899, 

page 228. 
St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 2, 1901, 

page 171. 
Railroad Gazette, Oct. 11, 

1901. 
Railroad Gazette, Jan. 24, 

1902. 
Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 

129; St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 

1, 1902, page 157. 
Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 

210; St. Ry. Journal, April 

5, 1902, page 429. 
Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 

865; St. Ry. Journal, June 

28, 1902, page 809. 



St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 
page 474. 

St. Ry. Journal, Jan. 5, 1903, 
page 28. 



Train resistance: 
Train Resistance [Davis]. 

Mr. Davis' Formula on Train Resistance 

[Lundie]. 
Mr. Davis' Formula on Train Resistance 

[Bell]. 
Mr. Davis' Formula on Train Resistance 

[Willie]. 
Train Resistance [Davis]. 

Results of Tests for Air Resistance on 
the Berlin-Zossen Experimental High- 
Speed Line. 

Train Resistance [Armstrong]. 

Results of the Tests on the Berlin-Zossen 
Experimental High-Speed Line. 



St. Ry. Journal, May 3, 1902, 

page 554. 
St. Ry. Journal, May 3, 1902, 

page 556. 
St. Ry. Journal, May 3, 1902, 

page 559. 
St. Ry. Journal, May 3, 1902, 

page 560. 
St. Ry. Journal, June 7, 

1902, page 724. 
St. Rv. Journal, June 7, 

1902', page 726. 

St. Ry. Journal, July 5, 1902, 

page 21. 
St. Ry. Journal, Aug. 2, 1902, 

page 145. 



240 



APPENDIX. 



Plotting speed-time curves: 
Plotting Speed-Time Curves [Mailloux]. 



Motors and motor rating: 

Selection of Electric Motors for Railway 
Service [Potter]. 

Consideration of the Inertia of the Rotat- 
ing Parts of a Train [Storer]. 

Relation of Energy and Motor Capacity 
to Schedule Speed in the Moving of 
Trains by Electricity [Hutchinson]. 

Discussion of the Relation of Energy and 
Motor Capacity to Schedule Speed in 
Moving Trains by Electricity. 

Stopping time at stations: 
Stopping Time at Stations [Gerry]. 



Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 
901; St. Ry. Journal, 1902, 
July 5, page 51; July 26, 
page 121; Aug. 9, page 199; 
Aug. 16, page 231; Aug. 
23, page 255; Aug. 30, page 
275. 

Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 

169; St, Ry. Journal, April 

5, 1902, page 422. 
Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 

165; St. Ry. Journal, April 

5, 1902, page 436. 
Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 

129; St. Ry. Journal, April 

5, 1902, page 437. 
Trans. A. I. E. E., 1902, page 

193; St. Ry. Journal, April 

19, 1902, page 478. 



Trans. A. I. E. E., 1897, page 
353; St. Ry. Journal, Aug., 
1897, page 471. 
Buildings and equipment: 

Interurban Electric Railway Car Equip- St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 

ment [Potter]. page 514. 

Trucks for Interurban Service [Uebe- St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 

lacker]. page 517. 

Cars for High-Speed Interurban Service. St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 

page 539. 
Modern Switchboard Practice [Davis]. St. Ry. Journal, Nov. 1, 1902, 

page 751. 
Rolling Stock of Manhattan Railway St. Ry. Journal, Dec. 6, 1902, 

Company. page 907. 

Car-House Construction. St. Ry. Journal, March 14, 

1903, page 408. 

Application of electricity to steam railroads : 

N. Y.. N. H. & Hartford Electric Rail- St. Ry. Journal, June, 1897, 

roading [Heft]. page 329. 

Application of Electricity to Steam Rail- St. Ry. Journal, Nov., 1897, 

roads [Heft]. page 777. 

Increased Business Due to Changing from St. Ry. Journal, Aug. 25, 
Steam to Electric Traction [Heft]. 1900, page 786; Sept. 8, 

1900, page 857. 
St. Ry. Journal, June 28, 

1902, page 805. 
St. Ry. Journal, Nov. 15, 
1902", page 807. 



Electric Cars on Steam Railroads 

[Evans]. 
Heavy Electric Traction near Paris. 



APPENDIX. 24*2 

Electric Locomotives on the Western St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 28, 

Railway of France. 1903, page 314. 

Third Rail on the Baltimore & Ohio Rail- St. Ry. Journal, March 14, 

road [Young]. 1903, page 398. 

High-Speed Electric Traction in Ger- St. Ry. Journal, May 16, 

many. 1903, page 736. 

Three-Phase Electric Railway at Valtel- St. Ry. Journal, May 30, 

lina. 1903, page 788. 

Description of high-speed roads: 

Grand Rapids, Holland & Lake Michigan St. Ry. Journal, March 15, 

Rapid Railway [Damon & Ray]. 1902, page 330. 

Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muske- St. Ry. Journal, July 5, 1902, 

gon Railway. page 1. 

Motive Power and Rolling Stock of the St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 

Detroit United Railway [Farmer]. P^ge 144. 

Power Distribution and Operating Points St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 
on the Detroit. Ypsilanti, Ann Arbor page 485. 
& Jackson Railway: 
Aurora, Elgin & Chicago Railway. St. Ry. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 

page 565. 
Electric Road from Fayet to Chamonix. St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 7, 1903, 

page 206. 
Wilkosbarre & Hazelton Railway. St. Ry. Journal, March 7, 

1903, page 344. 
Seattle-Tacoma Interurban Railw^ay. St. Ry. Journal, May 2, 1903, 

page 646. 
Applevard Syndicate Interurban System. St. Ry. Journal, Mav 16, 

1902, page 728; May 23, 

1902, page 758. 
Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley Rail- St. Ry. Journal, June 13, 

w^ay. 1903, page 864. 

Descriptions of elevated and underground railicays: 

Electrical Equipment of the Manhattan St. Ry. Journal, Jan. 5, 1901, 

Elevated Railway [Pegram, Baker, page 1. 

Stillwell]. 
Tube Railwavs in London [McMahon]. St. Ry. Journal, Aug. 16, 

1902^ page 228. 
Metropolitan Railway of Paris. St. Ry. Journal, Sept. 1, 

1903, page 797; Sept. 6, 
1902, page 305. 

Rolling Stock. Third-Eail Shoe, etc., Man- St. Ry. Journal, Dec. 6, 1902, 
hattan Elevated Railway. page 907. 

Tests of interurtan equipment: 

Analysis of the Operation of an Inter- St. Ry. Journal, May, 1899, 

urban Railway. page 265. 

New York & Port Chester Railway St. Ry. Journal, Jan. 4, 1902, 

Hearing. page 45. 



248 



APPENDIX. 



Tests of Interurban Cars of Union 
Traction Company of Indiana [Ren- 
sliaw]. 

Performance of the Dayton & Troy Elec- 
tric Railway Power House. 

Test of Subway Motors. 

Test of station and equipment: 
Rockford, Beloit & Janesville Railway. 

Miscellaneous : 

Graphical Representation of Street Rail- 
way Statistics [Gotshall]. 

Specifications for Road Bed and Over- 
head Construction. 

Table of Third-Rail Roads. 



St. Ely. Journal, Oct. 4, 1902, 
page 522. 

St. Ry. Journal, Feb. 28, 

1903, page 320. 
St. Ry. Journal, March 21, 

1903, page 446. 

St. Ry. Journal, April 25, 
1903, page 623. 

St. Ry. Journal, Nov. 1, 1902, 

page 751. 
St. Ry. Journal, Nov. 22, 

1902, pa^e 841. 
St. Ry. Journal, July 4, 1903, 

page 43. 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Acceleration and Distance Curves. 160 
Alternating Current Systems, Ad- 
vantages of 84 

Ballast, Practice as to Amount of. 86 
Ballasting, Advantages of Good 

Work in 85 

Bibliography 244 

Block Signals 89 

Diagrams of 90, 93, 95 

Bonding, Considerations Relating 

to .. 88 

Booster, Applications of 120 

Boston Elevated Railway, Signal 

System of 94 

Braking and Distance Curve 165 

Branch Lines, Considerations Re- 
lating to 27 

Capacity of System, Conditions 

Governing 202 

Car Mile, Determination of Cost 

of 75 

Unit, Reduction to 195 

Cars and Trucks, Details of, for 

High Speeds 175 

Cars, Formula for Number of 39 

Center of Gravity, Use of Electri- 
cal Center of Gravity 126 

Character of Construction, Deter- 
mination Relating to 201 

Chart of Costs, etc.. Keeping of. . 197 

Coasting Curves 165 

Commercially Ideal Railroad 26 

Compensation for Use of High- 
ways 27, 178 

, Nature of Charge 170 

Competition, Remedy for 26 

Concrete Bridges, Cost of 52 

Concrete Steel-Bridge Construc- 
tion 97 

Condemnation of Land, etc 181 

, Points About Fixing Value 

of 185 

Condensers, Types of 133 

Conductors, Elements Controlling 

in Design of 81 

, Formulae for Size of 82 

Construction, Economic Consider- 
ations relating to 201 

Construction Costs, Table of 51 

Construction Period, Points Relat- 
ing to 190 

Costs, Chart Showing Representa- 
tion of Plate XI 

Costs of Installation. Illustration 

of Permissible Limit of 203 

Cost of Operation^ Units of 194 



PAGE, 

Cost of Power, Table of 131 

Cost of Preliminary Field Work.. 23 
Costs of Reciprocating Steam En- 
gine Power Stations 134 

Costs, Simplicity and Advantages 
of Graphical Representation of.. 196 

Curves and Tangents 18 

Curves, Illustration of Effect of 

Long Curves 18 

, Reasons for Short Length of. 18 



Diaries, Advantages of 20 

Diplomacy, Function of 21 

Direct Current, Limitations of, for 
Railway Units 120 



Direct vs. Alternating Current. 



120 



Earnings, Computation of, for New 
York & Port Chester Rail- 
road 59, 60 

, Considerations Relating to 

Detail of 56 

, Data and Formula for Com- 
putation of 11, 56 

, Increase of. Due to Introduc- 
tion of Electric Traction. 58 

, Table of, for Electric Sys- 
tem of Large Cities 62 

, Table Showing Relation of, to 

Population, etc 7-10 

, Tributary Population to be 

Taken in Determining. . 8, 63 

Earthwork Contracts, Bases of.... 35 

Earthwork, Slopes of Sides S3 



Determination of 

Tables to be Prepared for. 



33 
35 



Economics of Design and Construc- 
tion 201 

Efficiency of Plant, Keeping Rec- 
ord and Checking of...; 197 

Eminent Domain, Definition and 
Exercise of 180 

Energy Consumption, Comparison 

of, for Different Schedules. 47 

, Formula for Computation of. 49 

, Table Showing Relation of, to 

Schedule Speed, etc 50 

Energy Input, Curve of 166 

Equipment 148 



Controlling Considerations. 



38 



Engineer, Relations of. to Client.. 
Engineering, Preliminary Maps Re- 
quired for 12 

Engines. Considerations Controll- 
ing Selection of 132 

.Scope of Specification for... 187 

Expansion of Rail, Allowance for. 88 



[249] 



250 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Fencing Right of Way, Cost of . . 9G 
Field Engineering Corps, Composi- 
tion of 16 

Field Engineering Work, Division 

of 23 

Field Notes, Plotting of 31 

Field Work and Records, Keeping 

of 18 

Final Survey 78 

Fixed Charges, Ratio of, to Re- 
ceipts 201 

Fluctuations. EfEect of, on Energy 

Consumption 49 

Freight Earnings C4 

Freight Traffic 65 

Generators, Scope of Specification 

for , 187 

Grade Lines, Determination of... 32 
Gradients, Controlling Consider- 
ations 31 

Graduation, Determination of 33 

Graphic Schedules,. Application of, 

for Location of Turnouts. 42 
, Description of 41 

Headway, Economic Advantages 

of Short Ones 66 

, Formula for 39 

Highways, Advantages of Locat- 
ing Railway Tracks On or Near. 27 
Highway Crossings, Considerations 

Relating to 32 

, Dimensions of 32 

Highways and Streets, Limitations 
of Railways Located on 27 

Installation, Considerations Relat- 
ing to Magnitude of 202 

Interurban Railways, Development 

of 2 

, Requisites of 23 

Lap in Design of Block Signal Sys- 
tems 92 

Load on Power Station, Determina- 
tion of 42 

Location, Commercial Consider- 
ations Relating to and 
Controlling 13 

, Preliminary Data, etc., to be 

Obtained 21 

Location of Lines, Preliminary 
Work of 13 

Maintenance and Inspection of 
Cars and Equipment, Cost of. . . 72 

Maintenance of Way and Struc- 
tures, Details of Computation of 
Cost of 73 

Management, Requisites for Suc- 
cess of 199 

Maps, Filing of, with Local Au- 
thorities 184 

, Kind of. Required by Rail- 
roads 183 

, Scales of 81 

Momentum Profiles 31 



PAGE. 

Motor Equipment and Rolling 

Stock 148 

Multiple Unit Control, Kind of. . . 187 

Office Investigation and Work... 25 
Operating Cost, Determination, 
Danger of Using Percentage of 

Gross Receipt Basis 68 

Operating Cost Details, Table of. . 70 

Operating Costs, Details of 68 

, Details of. Computation of.. 71 

Operating Department, Organiza- 
tion of 193 

Operating Expenses 68 

Operation Costs, Determination 
and Representation of. De- 
tails of 196 

, Units of 194 

Operation, Determination of Cost 

per Car Mile 75 

Overhead or Trolley Construction. 101 

Passenger Stations, Permits Relat- 
ing to Design of 206 

Paving Populations, Minimum per 

Mile of Track 8 

Photographic Records During Con- 
struction, Advantages of 190 

Piping, Design of 132 

Population. Minimum per Mile of 

Track 8 

, Proportion of, Considered in 

Estimating Earnings 8 

, Served, Radius of 63 

Power and Substation Location, 

Details of Determination of 125 

Power, Detail of Computation of 

Cost of 72 

Power Maintenance Costs, Table 

of 1-^1 

Power Stations 120 

, Consideration Controlline Lo- 
cation and other Details of. 122 

, Design of 130 

, Division of Units of 129 

Preliminary Data. Kind Required. 6 
Preliminarv Surveys and Loca- 
tions. Data Required when Com- 
pleted 21 

Private R?<Tht of Way 179 

Profiles, Considerations Relating 

to .^1 

, Data of, to be Shown 35 

, Typical Section of 34 

Progress Sheets, Preparation and 

Keeping of 190 

Promoter, Definition of fi 

Propertv Maps. Preparation of. . . . 181 
Protected Third Rail 105, 111 

Rail, Distribution of Metal of 88 

. Life of 74 

Records of Costs. Graphical Rep- 
resentation and Keeping of 196 

References. List of 244 

Reports of Engineers, etc., What 

Should Contain 208 

Retardation Curves 165 



INDEX. 



251 



PAGE. 

Right of Way 178 

, Maps 182 

, Proceeding and Details of 

Purchase of 182 

Real Estate, Cost of 54 

Rolling Stock 148 

Run Curve Computations, Table 

Showing Detail of 173 

Run Curve, Detail of Construction 

of 159 

, Application of 47, 48 

, Application of, in Determin- 
ing Size of Power Stations 124 

Run Sheets, Comparison of Differ- 
ent Schedules by Construc- 
tion of ...Plates I, II, III, IX, etc. 

Schedule Speeds. Computation 

Showing Relative Costs of. 205 

, Danger of Inconsiderate 

Specification of 148 

, Formulae Showing Relation 

of, to Headway and Num- 
ber of Cars 39 

, Considerations Relating to 

Determination of 151 

Schedules, Economic Consideration 

Relating to 47 

, Graphic Representation of . . 39 

, Preliminary Determination 

of 38 

Secrecy, Application of 21 

Silence, Value of 21 

Single Track Railroad, Folly of.. 25 
Size of Subways, etc.. Points on. 207 

Specification, Typical Set of 211 

Specifications, What Should con- 
tain 186 

Speed Time Curves, Preliminary 
Determinations and Computa- 
tion 149 

Stadia Measurements, Where Use- 
ful 22 

Starting New Railroad, Best Time 

for 192 

Steam Engines, Type to be 

Adopted 132 

Stops at Stations, Time of 41 

Storage Batteries 136 

Street and Highways, Disadvan- 
tages of Railroads on 179 

Substations, Location of 128 

Subways, Dimensions of, as Re- 
lated to Costs of Operation 207 

Success, Characteristics of, for 
Railway Work 21 

Tact, Necessity of 21 

Terminals, Relations of, to Esti- 
mates of Earnings 8 



PAGE. 

Third Rail, Anchoring and Expan- 
sion of 110 

, Composition of 110 

, How Supported 109 

, Table Showing Distances 

Above and From Track Rails.. 108 
Third Rail Construction, Compari- 
son with Cost of Trolley 

Construction 103 

, Cost and Advantages of 101 

, Diagram of 104-106 

Third Rail Shoes, Cuts of. Ill, 113, 114 

Ties, Kinds of Wood Used for 86 

Ton-Mile, Energy Consumption for. 50 

Topographer, Duties of 17 

Topographical Records, Data Re- 
quired 17 

Track Construction . . . ". , '. ". *. '. ' 85 

Track Joints, Suspended and Sup- 
ported ^ gg 

Tracks, Proper Number of " 20'-' 

Tractive Effort, Curve of '.'.'. 166 

Traflic Interchange, Necessity for 

Provision for 207 

Train Friction, Curves of...". 153, 154 
m • ^ . 156, 158 

Train Resistance, Formula for 157 

Transmission, Losses of 83 

Tripper, Automatic Block Signal 

System 96, 97 

Trolley Construction, Diagrams 

of 115-117 

, Probably Cheaper for Light 

Sched-ules lOo 

, Requirements of, for Higli 

Speeds 114 

Trolley Roads, Ascertaining Prob- 
able Business of 57 

Trolley Systems, Speeds and Cur- 
rents Used 107 

Trolley Wheels, Life of 107 

Turbines, Costs and Advantages 

of Steam Turbines 135 

Typical Run Curves 150, 151 

Units of Power Stations 129 

"Vertical Curves, Computation for, 
etc 3G 

Voltage, Limitations of, for Direct 
Current 84 

Wind Resistance, Devices and De- 
sign for Reduction of 152 

Wiring Diagrams of Plates VII, 

VIII, IX 
Watt-Hours per Ton-Mile 50, 124 

Zone System of Determination of 
Earnings 01 



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PI.ATK III —Actual Run Curves of the New York and Port Chester Railroad between Willis Avenue and 149th Street, 
New York City. Showing Effect upon Energy ConsumpUon m Watt Hours per Ton Mile due to varying the 
Time Occupied in Covering a Given Distance. See Table in Upper Right Corner. 





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PtATS II. — ^Actual Run (,iir t iIr \i. \ork ind Port Cliester Railroad between New Rochelte and 

Larchmont, for different Sdiedulc bpi-i-ds slionmg Effect upon Energy Consumption of Schedule 
Speed. See Table m Center 




Plate I.— Actual Run Cun-es of \\\'z New York ami Port Chester Railroad between Rye Neck and 
Rye, for differeut Schedules and Correspouding Energy Consumption. Data Shown in Table 
at Upper Right Corner. For Description, see Text. 



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Plate VI— Actual Run Curve of the New York and Port Chester Railroad, between E. 149th Street and 
Bronx Park, of New York City, sliowing Effect upon Curve of Throwing off the Power once and Reapply- 
ing it, and Consequently Reaccele rating. 



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PI.ATE v.— Actual Run Curve of the New York and Port Chester Railroad between Rye and Port 
Chester, showing Effect upon the Appearance of the curve of a number of breaks and Suc- 
cessive Reapplications of the Power. 



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Kye Neck, showing effect of cutting off and Reapplying Power. 







Plate IX. — Wiring Diagram of Sub-Station of Aurora, Elgin & Cliicago Railway. 




Plate VIII. — Wiring Diagram showing connections between High and Low Tension Transmission Systems of 
Boston and Worcester Street Railway. 



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^"'S ^'' -firing Diagram of an Al«rnali„s Current High Potential Main Generating Station; Atirora, 
»lgin & Chicago Railway. 




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Plats X.— Straiu-o.i.c. lor a clear lOO foot Span, Concrete-Steel Bridge or Highway Crossing, for New York aou 
Port Chester Railroad. 




Jan. 



Feb. 



Mar. 



,Apr. May 



Jvaie 



July Aug. 



Sept. 



Oct. 



Nov. 



Dec. 



Plate XL— Graphic Representation of Various Operating Costs, of an Electric Street Railway System, 
operated by the Author in 1895. 



McGra^v P\jblisKii\g Co., 

Publishers, Importers and Booksellers, 

114 Liberty Street, :: :: New York City. 



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The best treatise yet written on the practical and commercial 
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Power Distribution for Electric Railways 

Deals with the laying out and calculating of electric railway 
circuits. Substation distribution is also considered. Third 
edition. 303 pages, 148 illustrations 2 50 

Billings, W. R.— Some Details of Water-Works Construc- 
tion 

96 pages. 28 illustrations. 2 00 

Billings, John S.— Ventilation and Heating 

500 pages, 210 illustrations 4 00 

Bjorling, Philip R.— Briquettes and Patent Fuel 

Their manufacture and machinery connected therewith. 254 
pages. 121 illustrations. . , 3 75 

Camp, W. M.— Notes on Track Construction and Mainte- 
nance 

A''e-:a edition. Extended and enlarged. More than 1200 pages 

and 600 illustrations. In two vols. $4.00; or bound in one vol.. 3 75 

Cement Industry, The 

Description of Portland and natural cement plants in the 
United States and Europe, with notes on materials and pro- 
cesses in Portland cement manufacture. 235 pages, 132 il- 
lustrations 3 00 

Collins, A. F.— Wireless Telegraphy (in preparation.) 
Considere, A.— Reinforced Concrete 

Translated from the French, with a preface and additions by 
Leon S. Moisseiff 2 00 

Crehore, A. C.-(See Bedell, Fred'k) 

Cushing, H. C— Standard Wiring for Electric Light and 
Power, 1904 Edition 

As adopted by the Fire Underwriters of the United States. 
Flexible leather, 144 pages, illustrated i 00 



de la Tour, Boy— The Induction Motor; Its Theory and 
Design 

Set forth by a practical method of calculation. Translated 
from the French by C. O. Mailloux. 225 pages and 77 illus. . .$2 50 

Diagrams of Electrical Connections, with Explanatory 
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32 pages, paper 50 

Dobbs, A. E.— Practical Features of Telephone Work 

l2mo, cloth. 134 pages, 61 illustrations 75 

Electrical Designs 

262 pages, 289 illustrations 2 00 

Emmet, William LeRoy— Alternating Current Wiring and 
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Contains a very clear account of the principles of alternating 
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98 pages, 33 illustrations. i6mo, cloth i 00 

Fairman, James F.— Telephone Wiring (in preparation.) 

Freund, Leopold— Elements of General Radio-Therapy for 
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Translated by G. H. Lancashire. 538 pages, 106 illustrations, 
with an appendix of 59 pages and 86 illustrations on " Notes 
on Instrumentation," by Clarence A. Wright 5 00 

Gerard Eric— Electricity and Magnetism 

With chapters by C. P. Steinmetz, A. E. Kennelly and Dr. 
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Gonzenbach, E.— Engineering Preliminaries for an Inter- 
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72 pages, illustrated i 00 

Goodell, John— Water- Works for Small Cities and Towns 

281 pages, 53 illustrations 2 00 

Gotshall, W. C— Notes on Electric Railway Economics 
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A series of Notes on the Preliminary Engineering of Inter- 
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Hanchett, George T.— Modern Electric Railway Motors 

The various commercial types of electric railway motors are 
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Handy Tables for Electrical and Steam Engineers 

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Hendricks, S. E.— Commercial Register of the United 
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Especially devoted to the interests of the architectural, mechani- 
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mining, mill, quarrying and kindred interests. 1228 pages. ... 6 00 

Hering, Carl— Electrochemical Equivalents i oo 

Ready Reference Tables. Vol. f 

Conversion factors of every unit of measure in use, based on the 
accurate legal standard values of the United States. Flexible 
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The Universal Wiring Computer 

For determining the sizes of wires for incandescent electric 
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with some notes on wiring and a set of Auxiliary Tables. 44 
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Herrick, Albert B.— Practical Electric Railway Hand Book 

Handsomely bound in leather, with flap. 450 pages 3 00 

Hopkinson, John— Original Papers on Dynamo Machinery 
and Allied Subjects 

Authorized American edition. 249 pages, 98 illustrations i 00 

Houston, E. J.— Advanced Primers of Electricity 

Vol. I. Electricity and Magnetism and other Advanced 

Primers. Second edition, 318 pages i 00 

Vol. 2. Electrical Measurements and other Advanced Primers. 

429 pages I 00 

Vol. 3. Electrical Transmission of Intelligence and other Ad- 
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Dictionary of Electrical Words, Terms and Phrases 

Fourth edition. Greatly enlarged. 990 double column octavo 

pages, 582 illustrations 7 00 

Pocket edition. 945 pages, cloth 2 50 

Pocket edition. 945 pages, leather 3 00 



McGRAW PUBLISHING COMPANY. 



Electricity One Hundred Years Ago and To-day 

199 pages, illustrated $1 00 

Houston, E. J.y and A. E. Kennelly— Algebra Made Easy 

loi pages, 5 illustrations 75 

Electricity Made Easy by Simple Language and 

Copious Illustrations 

34& pages, 207 illustrations i 50 

The Interpretation of Mathematical Formulae 

225 pages, 9 illustrations i 25 

Electrical Engineering Leaflets, Containing the 

Underlying Principles of Electricity and Magnetism 

ELEMENTARY GRADE— suited to the study of Electrical 
Artisans, Wiremen and to Elementary Students. 296 pages, 

121 illustrations, 8vo, cloth i 50 

INTERMEDIATE GRADE suited to students in High 

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Electro-Dynamic Machinery 

A text-book on continuous-current dynamo-electric machinery 
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Recent Types of Dynamo-Electric Machinery 

612 pages, 435 illustrations 4 00 

(ELECTROTECHNICAL SERIES-10 VOLUMES) 

Alternating Electric Currents 

Third edition, 271 pages, 102 illustrations i 00 

Electric Arc Lighting 

Second edition. 437 pages, 172 illustrations I 00 

Electric Heating 

290 pages, 86 illustrations i 00 

Electric Incandescent Lighting 

Second edition. 508 pages, 161 illustrations i 00 

The Electric Motor 

377 pages, 122 illustrations. i 00 



McGRAW PUBLISHING COMPANY. 



Electric Street Railways 

367 pages, 158 illustrations $1 00 

Electric Telegraphy 

448 pages, 163 illustrations i 00 

The Electric Telephone 

Second edition. 454 pages, 151 illustrations i 00 

Electro-Therapeutics 

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Magnetism 

294 pages, 94 illustrations i 00 

International Electrical Congress: Transactions and Pro- 
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(a) At the World's Fair, Chicago, 1893. One volume 3 00 

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the Congress, probably about December, 1904, in three paper 
bound volumes 10 00 

Kennelly, A. E.— (See Houston, E. J. and A. E. Kennelly.) 

Lancashire, G. H.— (See Freund, Leopold) 

LeChatelier, H.— Experimental Researches Upon the Con- 
stitution of Hydraulic Mortars 

Translated from the French by J. L. Mack, with an appendix... 2 00 

Lyndon, Lamar— Storage Battery Engineering 

A practical treatise for Engineers, Second edition, cloth, 360 
pages, 178 illustrations and diagrams, 4 large folding plates. ... 3 00 

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MailloUX, C. 0.— (See de la Tour.) 

Mason, H.— Static Electricity 

Cloth, 155 pages, 63 illustrations 2 00 

Merrill, A. E.— Electric Lighting Specifications 

For the use of Engineers and Architects. Second edition, en- 
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Reference Book of Tables and Formulas for Elec- 
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Second edition. Flexible morocco. 128 pages. Interleaved 
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Meyer, Henry C, Jr.— Steam Power Plants, their Design 
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i6o pages, i6 plates and 65 illustrations $2 00 

Meyer, Henry C— Water Waste Prevention: Its Import- 
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Cloth. Large, 8vo i 00 

Miller, Kempster B.— American Telephone Practice 

A comprehensive treatise, including descriptions of apparatus, 
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pages, 379 illustrations 3 00 

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MoiSSeiff, L. S.— (See Considere.) 

Monroe, William S.— Steam Heating and Ventilation 

150 pages, 90 illustrations 2 00 

More, James, and Alex. M. McCallum— English Methods 
of Street Railway Track Construction 

Reprinted from the Street Railway Journal. Pamphlet. 26 
pages, illustrated 35 

Ohiy, J.— Analysis, Detection and Commercial Value of 
Rare Metals 

A treatise on the occurrence and distribution of the Rare Metals 
and Earths, the method of determination and their commer- 
cial value in the arts and industries, with a historical and statis- 
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mentary chapter 3 00 

Parham, E. C, and J. S. Shedd— Shop and Road Testing 
of Dynamos and Motors 

626 pages, 211 illustrations 2 50 

Poincare, H.— Maxwell's Theory and Wireless Telegraphy 

Part I. — Maxwell's Theory and Hertzian Oscillations, by H. 
Poincare, translated by Fred'k K. Vreeland. Part II. — The 
Principles of Wireless Telegraphy, by Fred'k K. Vreeland. 
Cloth, 260 pages, 145 illustrations 2 00 

Poole, C. P.— Wireman's Pocket Book 

In press; ready shortly i 00 

Portraits of Founders of Electrical Science 

From Gilbert to Henry. Includes portraits of Gilbert, Guericke. 
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Becquerel 25 



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Pratt, Mason D., and C. A. Aiden— Street Railway Roadbed 

A treatise on the construction of the roadbed, giving data as 
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Reed, Lyman C— American Meter Practice 

Cloth, 250 pages, illustrated 2 00 

Robinson, F. J.— Keys for the Practical Electrical Worker 

The Electric Light, Power, Street Railvsray, Telephone and the 
Telegraph explained and illustrated by drawings and diagrams 
of connections from the latest practice. 196 pages, flexible 
leather cover 2 00 

Saunders, W. L.— Compressed Air 

A cyclopedia containing practical papers on the production, 
transmission and use of compressed air. 1188 pages, 498 illus. 5 00 

Shepardson, George D.— Electrical Catechism 

450 pages, 325 illustrations 2 00 

Skinner, Frank W.— Types and Details of Bridge Con- 
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Vol. I. — Arch Bridges: comprising (i) Wood and Iron Arch 
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Smith, Chas. F.— The Practical Testing of Dynamos and 
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231 pages, 83 illustrations 2 00 

Steinmetz, Charles Proteus — Theoretical Elements of 
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Second edition. 320 pages, 148 illustrations 2 50 

The Theory and Calculation of Alternating Cur- 
rent Phenomena 

Third edition. 525 pages, 210 illustrations 4 00 

Vreeland, Frederick K.— (See Poincare, h.) 

Wait, John C— Calendar of Invention and Discovery 

Being a memorial of the personal of the greatest inventors, dis- 
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progress of the world. Cloth, with flap i 00 

Webb, Herbert Laws— The Telephone Handbook 

New edition. 160 pages, 133 illustrations i 00 



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Wiener, A. E.— Practical Calculation of Dynamo-Electric 
Machines 

A manual for Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, and a Text- 
book for students of Electrotechnics. Second edition. 727 
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Williams, Chisholm — High Frequency Currents in the 
Treatment of Disease 

222 pages, 74 illustrations 2 75 

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American Electrician 

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Street Railway Journal 

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Electric Railway Directory and Buyers' Manual 

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Central Station List and Manual of Electric Lighting 

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NOV 11 1804 



